GMOs in Food

Are GMOs in American foods now?

Yes, currently, most of the field corn (hard kernels) and soybeans grown in the US are genetically modified. The traits commonly used are resistance to herbicides, such as Roundup and resistance to insect pests, through incorporation of the Bt trait. These crops are typically found in processed and packaged foods (phys.org). When you see dextrose, soy lecithin, or high fructose corn syrup on a package of non-organic food, the food probably contains GMOs. In addition, cows and pigs are typically fed GM corn and soybeans, so our meat contains processed GMOs.

Phys.org GMO corn, soybeans dominate US market

http://phys.org/news/2013-06-gmo-corn-soybeans-dominate.html

Do GMOs taste different?

No. GMO plants have been generated from conventional cultivars so they don’t taste any different. Unless you eat only organic food, you have probably already eaten GMOs.

Are GMOs more nutritious? Is Organic more nutritious?

There is no significant difference between the nutritional of Organic and GMO crops.  Studies have shown that organic crops are not  more nutritious than conventional crops with the exception of vitamin C content in organically grown blueberries which was slightly higher than conventionally grown blueberries (Journal of Food Research). Since genetically modified crops are grown in conventional cropping systems, it is hard to draw this direct comparison. However, in some studies growing crops organically has been shown to produce more nutritious crops than growing them in conventional systems (Food Chemistry). On the other hand, Golden Rice is genetically modified to contain higher levels of beta-carotene, also known as pro-Vitamin A( Golden Rice Project). In this case, the genetically modified variety would have higher nutritional value no matter which system it was grown in! Anthocyanin enhanced tomatoes are another example of a genetically modified crop that has had a nutritional compound added by genetic modification. Go check it out on our news page!

Journal of Food Research, A Comparison of Antioxidant Properties in Organic and Conventional Blueberries

Bohn et al. Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: Glyphosate accumulates in Roundup Ready GM soybeans, Food Chemistry, Volume 153, 2014 http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814613019201

Golden Rice Project

http://www.goldenrice.org/

Why aren’t GMOs labeled?

In this US, GMOs were originally treated under the substantial equivalence principle. This means that they were approved as being equivalent to current crops being grown. Both regulators and companies considered GM plants to not be a risk, and as such, there was no need to label them. After concerns about GMOs were raised in Europe, and by environmentalists in the US, a push for GMO labeling in the US began. There are several arguments for and against GMO labeling. Labeling proponents state that people have right to know what they are eating, but those against labeling warn that, since many people don’t actually know what they are eating( i.e. don’t know what a GMO actually is), labeling is worthless fear mongering. Those against labeling also point to massive costs to establish completely separate production systems for GMO and non-GMO foods (Colorado State Extension).  A measure to label GMOs was narrowly defeated in California Prop 37(Huffington Post). Currently, Vermont is the only state with regulations stating that GMOs must be labeled (Burlington Press).  Foods with GM products are often labeled as such, and no organic products can contain GMOs.

Colorado State Extension

http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09371.html

Huffington Post

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/11/07/prop-37-defeated-californ_n_2088402.html

Burlington Free Press

http://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/politics/2014/04/27/gmo-labeling-came-pass-vermont/8166519/

Why are GMOs labeled in Europe?

Soon after GMOs were introduced in Europe, several scares concerning GMOs were widely reported. This was quickly followed by the Mad Cow Disease outbreak in the UK. These factors led to great insecurity among the public in Europe over GMOs. The governments of Europe addressed this by mandating the labeling of all GMO food. This was also easier to do in Europe, as GMO crops were not widely grown there, as they were in the US. (Council on Foreign Relations)

Council on Foreign Relations

http://www.cfr.org/agricultural-policy/regulation-gmos-europe-united-states-case-study-contemporary-european-regulatory-politics/p8688

GMO Safety

Are GMOs safe to eat?

There is no solid answer to this question because no irrefutable evidence has been presented that proves GM food crops are any less safe to consume than non-GM foods. The fact is that GM crops have not been in commercial production for an extensive period of time, therefore the health benefits/risks have not been researched to a point where a conclusive decision on their safety can be determined.

Source:  Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 316-42. Print.

Can the pollen from a GMO plant infect a non-GMO plant?

Yes, as long as the plant is related to the genetically modified plant and sexually compatible. To have a gene transferred to the non-GM plant the inserted gene must be present in the pollen. This has driven biotechnologists to take an alternative approach by engineering chloroplast genomes because, as is the case in many plants, chloroplasts are inherited maternally, not through the pollen.

Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 316-42. Print.

Do GMOs have potential to create ‘super-weeds’?

Since there is public concern about the use of antibiotic resistance genes as selectable markers, geneticists have turned to using herbicide resistance genes as a selectable marker. This creates the potential for herbicide resistant “super-weeds” that are not able to be controlled by the traditional herbicides farmers may use. This gene transfer is possible if pollen from the transformed plant fertilizes the sexually compatible (non-GM) weedy relative, but this gene escape may be side-stepped by engineering chloroplast genomes that have potential to prevent gene transfer through pollen.
Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 316-42. Print.

Do GMOs cause antibiotic resistance?

GMO crops can be engineered with antibiotic resistance properties which are useful when screening for transformed plants, although many scientists believe that it is highly unlikely that the genes inserted to the transformed gene will escape to bacteria (although not impossible). There is public concern that the gut bacteria of humans may take up these inserted genes, just like what happens in nature, but there is no solid evidence behind this theory and many scientists believe this to be highly unlikely to occur.

Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 316-42. Print.

 Do GMOs cause allergies?

Once again, the fear of allergens in GM food crops is a main concern of the public that has not been supported by irrefutable scientific facts. A proposed allergic reaction to (insect resistant) Bt corn was said to have occurred in the Philippines by the villagers that consumed it, but this was not proven to be true and the sickness was speculated to have been caused by a virus. People interested in this topic should read peer-reviewed scholarly articles to determine the possibilities of allergic reactions due to genetically modified food crops.

Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 316-42. Print.

How are GMOs regulated?

The main government agencies involved in overseeing and determining the regulation of GM crops in the United States are the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS); the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) also plays a role in overseeing safety regarding pesticides. There are 6 criteria to meet before notifying APHIS of environmental release of a GM crop.

  1. The plant species must be determined. Example: Maize, cotton, potato, soybean, tobacco, tomato, etc.
  2. The transgenes must be stably integrated.
  3. The function of the transgene(s) must be known and expression must not be detrimental to plant health.
  4. The transgene does not result in the production of an “infectious entity” like a virus. The transgene also must not encode for substances known, or likely to be, toxic to non-target organisms likely to feed or live on the plant.
  5. Introduced sequences that are derived from plant viruses must not pose the risk of the creation of new plant viruses.
  6. The plant must not contain certain genetic material derived from an animal or human pathogen.

Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 338-339. Print.

Why is it different in Europe?

Countries that make up the European Union (EU) have been much slower to accept the implementation and commercialization of genetically modified crops compared to the United States.

After an Environmental Risk Assessment (ERA) has been performed the researchers must submit a detailed dossier to the Joint Regulatory Authority (JRA), the Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment (ACRE), and relevant ministers to get approval for a research trial. If approved by these authorities, then the scale of the release of the GM crop can be increased.

To approve marketing releases of a GM crop, the crop approved for research trial must have another dossier written up and submitted to its Member State. If all requirements are met and the potential risks are mentioned as well as all aspects of the research trial, the dossier is forwarded to the European Commission for consideration by the Member States.

A test that has been proven difficult to pass is the farm-scale evaluations. These evaluations of GMOs monitor the growth and risks of cultivating the GM crop on multiple small-scale farms before the implementation into commercial sized fields. This is the step at which many GM crops do not meet approval for various reasons.

Although the United States has implemented many criteria to meet prior to commercialization of GM crops, it seems that the EU has always been more reluctant in allowing widespread cultivation. Eventually population increases may require genetically modified crops to be implemented into European farming but for now it remains on a smaller scale than the United States.

Source: Slater, Adrian, Nigel W. Scott, and Mark R. Fowler. “Chapter 12: Science and Society: Public Acceptance of Genetically Modified Crops.” Plant Biotechnology: The Genetic Manipulation of Plants. Second ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2008. 331-338. Print.

GMO Vocabulary

What is the difference between GMO and Organic?

Organic describes a process and GMO describes a product.

Organic describes carbon based compounds. It has become synonymous with USDA Organic which is a controlled food-growing process.  The USDA defines Organic as: “Organic food is produced without: antibiotics; growth hormones; most conventional pesticides; petroleum- based fertilizers or sewage sludge-based fertilizers; bioengineering; or ionizing radiation. USDA certification is required before a product can be labeled “organic”. Companies, including restaurants, that handle or process organic food must be certified also.”

To read the electronic code of federal regulation in its entirety, its scintillating, use this link:

http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title07/7cfr205_main_02.tpl

GMO describes a product that a change was made to, such as genetic modification.  The USDA describes genetically modified foods as “Foods produced from genetically modified organisms. These species have undergone directed modification of their gene complement using such techniques as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc.”

The WHO defines genetically modified organisms as “foods derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the introduction of a gene from a different organism.”

http://www.who.int/topics/food_genetically_modified/en/

Organic describes a process and GMO describes a product. Excluding an arbitrary clause that says you can’t use GMO seed in USDA Organic production, there is really no reason why the two couldn’t work synergistically.

What is biotechnology?

The definition of biotechnology changes depending on who you ask.

The USDA says “The use of living organisms, cells or cell constituents for the purpose of developing products, improve animals or plants, or improve biological processes” compared to their definition for agricultural biotechnology which is “The use of living organisms, cells or cell constituents for the purpose of developing agricultural products or improving livestock or crop plants.”

http://agclass.nal.usda.gov/glossary.shtml

The WHO defines biotechnology as, “Biotechnology describes biological processes that have been engineered.”

http://www.who.int/biologicals/areas/vaccines/biotechnology/en/

Even OECD has a definition for biotechnology: “The application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and models thereof, to alter living or non-living materials for the production of knowledge, goods and services.”

http://www.oecd.org/sti/biotech/statisticaldefinitionofbiotechnology.htm

If you asked me, I would say that biotechnology is the use of biological processes and systems to aid in technology.  So, you pick whichever one you like best.

What is the difference between conventional breeding and transgenics (GMOs)?

Time.

It is difficult to find an adequate source to describe the differences between classical breeding and transgenics aside from multiple college classes, but this PBS video clip does a pretty good job:

http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.gen.breeding/classical-vs-transgenic-breeding/

Let’s take tomatoes as an example. Classical breeding works by picking the ‘best’ tomato. ‘best’ can mean biggest, reddest, most tomatoes, anything. Every time you pick that best tomato and you plant it again you are selecting for certain traits, and against others. The whole idea of breeding is you accumulate as much variety in a plant species (that will reproduce because if they don’t reproduce you’ve got nothing) and you mix it all up trying to find the best combinations. Breeders are very good at what they do and there are many methods such as pedigree breeding, backcross breeding, etc. to accelerate the process but ultimately they rely on collecting seeds, planting them, and seeing what they get. They take to good and leave the bad. But its not so simple. Linkage drag is when undesirable traits are passed from parent to offspring along with desirable traits making them difficult to separate. For instance a desirable trait might be a big, red, juicy tomato and an undesirable trait might be a susceptibility to disease. In spite of recent techniques, humans have been selecting for and against traits since we started farming.

In a very simplified sense, transgenics work like copy + paste. Once a desirable gene (that codes for a desirable trait) is identified – and that is a feat in and of itself – scientists can copy that gene and paste it into another plant using specialized techniques. This makes it “faster” than classical breeding because there is no time to wait between generations, and there is no linkage drag. Transgenics accelerate what the end product of classical breeding would be.

Things get tricky – not bad, but tricky – when breeders start using biotechnology to accelerate breeding. Imagine you can tag a gene with a post-it note and follow it throughout the plant’s life cycle and see if it gets passed on or not. This same type of tagging can be used in classical breeding and transgenics to see if the desirable trait was added into the new plant. Technically this is a form of biotechnology. The tricky part arises where at what point does classical breeding stop being transgenic breeding and visa versa?

To further complicate things genes can be copy and pasted from one plant to another within the same species. Even with classical breeding this could be done. So where does the line get drawn? Should there even be a line drawn?

What is ‘green gene’?

GMOs and Organics don’t have to be mutually exclusive. The green gene movement can be described as the integration of GMOs and Organic practices and ideals to produce a better, safer, more environmentally friendly agricultural production system. Aside from the USDA stipulation that GMOs can’t be used in organic production there is no scientific reason why they can’t either.

For instance, if you grow herbicide resistant corn but you don’t apply any herbicide, does it matter? A better example is potentially using pest or disease resistant crops in conjunction with other Organic practices.

http://www.geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/04/09/green-gene-movement-can-blend-genetic-engineering-and-organic-practices/#.U2CHqpNdWSo

GMO Background

What does GMO stand for?

Genetically Modified Organism

http://ars.usda.gov/Research/docs.htm?docid=7205

What are GMOs?

“Genetically Modified foods are derived from organisms whose genetic material has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally…”

http://www.who.int/topics/food_genetically_modified/en/

The problem with this is that the process by which many transgenic plants are produced is through the utilization of agrobacterium’s infection, which integrates a segment of its DNA into the host plant

“Species that have undergone directed modification of their gene complement using techniques such as altering the DNA, substituting genetic material by means of a virus, transplanting whole nuclei, transplanting cell hybrids, etc.” USDA

What can you put in GMOs?

This varies from country to country [World Trade Review]

Where do GMOs come from?

Biotechnology companies such as Syngenta and Monsanto, as well as Biotechnology departments at universities such as Penn State University

What are the benefits of GMOs?

Increased yield

Increasing nutritional content (Biofortification)

Reducing allergenic potential

Improving efficiency of food production systems

Improving Shelf Life

Improving Disease Resistance

Improving Pest Resistance

[Crop Biofortification-GMO or Non-GMO, ETH Zurich University]

(WHO)

Late Blight Resistant Potatoes

Late blight (Phytophthora infestans) is one of the most devastating diseases of potatoes. The disease causes the leaves of the potato to wither and rot, and it can cause the tubers to rot as well. This is the same disease that was responsible for destroying the potato crop during the Irish Famine in the 1800s. Thus, resistance to this blight will be of major help to potato growers, especially in moister climates, such as those in the British Isles and the northeastern United States. In tomatoes, late blight resistance is being developed through traditional breeding programs. A high yielding tomato variety is crossed a late blight resistant wild species, then each descendent generation is crossed with the original variety, while still being selected for blight resistance. The end result is a variety with all the traits of the original variety and the resistance of the wild species. This is known as backcross breeding.  However, breeding resistance through this traditional methods has been difficult to achieve in potatoes, as they do not outcross well to the wild, resistant species. Thus, a gene from the wild species for late blight resistance was taken and inserted into the genome of the domestic potato, resulting in a plant similar to the product of backcross breeding. This potato variety was developed by the same institute that developed the anthocyanin containing tomatoes, the John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK.

Devastation from Late Blight

Devastation from Late Blight

Info. from the breeder

http://news.jic.ac.uk/2014/02/gm-spuds-beat-blight/

The alternative opinion

http://www.gmwatch.org/index.php/news/archive/2014/15313-gm-potato-research-a-waste-of-money

And a news article on the development of the potato

http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26189722

GM Anthocyanin containing tomatoes

Anthocyanins are antioxidant compounds produced by plants. Antioxidants destroy oxidizing agents in the body. Oxidizing agents destroy macromolecules such as proteins and DNA. Therefore, increasing the amount of antioxidants in the body should reduce DNA damage, and reduce the chance of cancer, and the amount of aging. Unfortunately, most people do not eat enough fruit and vegetables each day, and many of the most popular fruits and vegetables, such as apples, potatoes, potatoes, and bananas, do not contain high levels of anthocyanins. Fruits that do contain high levels of anthocyanins such as raspberries, blackberries, blueberries, and plums are more expensive, and not widely available. To solve this low anthocyanin intake problem, researchers have bred anthocyanin containing tomatoes. The gene used to produce the anthocyanin compounds was taken from a common flower, the snapdragon. This gene was then inserted into the tomato genome, so that the tomato fruit now contains anthocyanins. This tomato variety was developed by a researcher at the publically funded John Innes Centre, in Norwich, UK. Another anthocyanin containing variety was developed through traditional breeding at Oregon State University and is currently available for planting. This traditionally bred variety does not produce the same amount of anthocyanins in its fruit as the genetically modified variety does.

Oregon State  Anthocyanin Tomato

 

Oregon State Anthocyanin Tomato

purple_tomatoes

Possible uses for the GMO anthocyanin tomato

        http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25885756

Information from the tomato breeder

    http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/media-and-public/current-releases/081026martin.htm

A Traditionally Bred tomato that also contains anthocyanins

        horticulture.oregonstate.edu/purple_tomato_faq

Congressman Introduces Bill to Ban GMO Labeling

Rep. Mike Pompeo (R-Kansas) introduced a bill to prevent states from adopting bills mandating the labeling of GMOs. He has named the bill, the Safe and Accurate Food Labeling Act and claims that it would prevent fear mongering about GMOs. Opponents of the bills have termed it the DARK act, and state that it would prevent the public from making choices about their food. Read more here. http://kcur.org/post/kansas-congressman-introduces-ban-gmo-labels

Approved GM Crops List

Many GM crops have been approved in different countries.  Some of the major traits currently in use are Bt protein insect resistance and herbicide resistance. Major crops that have been modified include corn and soybeans. In fact, nearly 90% of soybeans grown in the US are genetically modified. Investigate the traits approved in your country here.