Monthly Archives: October 2014

A major catalyst for the eventual independence of the country of Angola was Jonas Malheiro Savimbi (August 3, 1934 – February 22, 2002). Savimbi was a very proud and patriotic man, devoting his life to the rectification of his homeland, which had been compromised under Portuguese rule. Savimbi was an honored Angolan military and political leader, whose reverence mainly stemmed from his founding of the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). UNITA was a guerrilla warfare group aimed at attacking Portuguese colonial rule. However, it was not the only group aimed at overcoming Portuguese colonialism. It was in competition with two other guerrilla groups: the Movimento Popular de Libertaccao de Angola (MPLA), the first founded group in 1956, and the Frente Nacional de Liberation of Angola (FNLA), which was founded second in 1957. UNITA was founded last in 1966.

The start of Savimbi’s career began with his inclusion within the MPLA’s youth division in the 1960s. The MPLA helped Savimbi to mold himself into an ideal activist, and he became a force to be reckoned with. Not only did he receive activist training, but Savimbi was also an experienced soldier. He received military training in China and became a successful guerilla fighter, who used these learned tactics in warfare and became infamous for them. Because of this training, Savimbi drew the attention of both Chinese and American policymakers.

Savimbi’s motives can be brought to question regarding whether he was truly aimed at the liberation of Angola, or if he was simply aimed at procuring an elevated status, or perhaps a more balanced delegation of power. Some of his actions could be called selfish because, even after succeeding in retrieving Angolan Independence, Savimbi continued to wage a war…now against, his former ally, and an organization which he had once been a part of, the MPLA. After Angola declared independence, MPLA assumed control of Angola. Its president became the president of the entirety of Angola and, doubly, Savimbi’s greatest enemy. It has since been found that Savimbi went so far as to sign a pact with Portuguese authorities to help him fight the MPLA. Savimbi’s feud with the MPLA, which lasted from 1974-2002, ended with his death at the hands of the MPLA, or Angolan government.

Much of Angola’s colonial history was molded under the jurisdiction of the empire of Portugal. Especially after the Dutch occupation of the 1640s, the Portuguese stronghold in Angola was sturdier than ever. Their colonial rule during this period lasts for a period of almost three hundred years, reigning over Angola from 1655 until October 20, 1951, when Angola was designated an independent overseas province.

Portuguese interest in Angola initially sparked from its supposed expansion of Gold and other valuable materials. However, they soon found that Angola better served as a labor industry, and deemed slaves as the single-most valuable commodity in that area. Thus, slaves were exported from Angola, most of them destined for Brazil. However, the export of slaves did not last long as the Europeans were able to seize control of much of the Portuguese industry as part of the “scramble for Africa” taking place in the 1880s. Simultaneously, local African ethnic groups force Portuguese settlers into confined areas. As such, the Portuguese are at a disadvantage.

In the nineteenth century, the export of slaves was finally banned in Angola, leading to an end to their richest and most common export. However, the practice of slavery was not abandoned, and the country still attempted to utilize slaves within Angola’s bounds. This was eventually outlawed in 1875. Portuguese control still becomes stronger during this time, however, as the Portuguese are angered by their constant transformation from kingdom to republic.

In answer to a tightening of Portuguese control, in the 1950s and 60s, thee guerrilla groups from to fight of the Portuguese government and to achieve independence for Angola. They are: MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertaccao de Angola), FNLA (Frente Nacional de Libertacao de Angola), and UNITA (Uniao Nacional para a Independencia Total de Angola). The government’s response to the situation is to send Portuguese peasants into Angola to act as slaves, rather than using the locals. As a result, forced labor is brought to an end, and provisions for education and health for native Africans in increased. In 1975, pressure from the guerilla groups forces Portuguese settlers out of Angola and Agostinho Neto, member of MPLA is deemed president of Angola, the rest of the MPLA being his government.

African Studies Blog #1

Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu was the leader of Nigeria’s breakaway from the military dictatorship that divided Nigeria into 2 segregated sections that were dictated by religious differences. His actions are believed to have started the Nigerian War, which both helped to liberate the people of Nigeria and what started the perception of Africa as being a place of starvation, neglect, and war.

Ojukwu was born on November 4th, 1933 in Northern Nigeria as the son of one of the richest men in Nigeria, Sir Louis Odumegwu Ojukwu. He was a very well educated man, traveling to the UK to earn a Masters Degree in History at Oxford University. His involvement in the military started when he joined the Nigerian military aroun 1958. Considering his educated background, Ojukwu was promoted to Liutenant-Colonel. Out of the 250 officers, Ojukwu was one of only 15 Nigerians to join this rank.

During this time, Nigeria became independent from the United Kingdom. The newly independent country was divided by its’ different ethnic and religious inhabitants; the Hausa and Fulani in the north, Yoruba in the south-west, Ijaws in the south and Igbo in the south-east. In 1966, a group of Igbo rebels led a coup that resulted in the killing of 30 northern political leaders, including Nigeria’s Prime Minister. No political figures in the south were harmed. The north retaliated 8 months later, killing almost 30,000 Igbo. These events intensified the tension between the ethnic groups of Nigeria. After attempting to create a confederation of regions, federal and eastern governments failed to come up with a solution to help the rising conflicts between the ethnic parties. Finally the Eastern region, led by its military governor Ojukwu, announced that they were seceding from Nigeria to form the Republic of Biafra. Unfortunately, this area of Nigeria was a primary source of oil for the country as a whole which created difficulties.

On July of 1967, the federal government of the rest of Nigeria launched its first attack of “police measures” on the Republic of Biafra, which was well equipped to retaliate. Unfortunately, this fighting went on non-stop for 3 years, resulting in a large number of civilian deaths and famine. Images of The Republic of Biafra’s civilians travelled across the globe, creating the perpetuated stereotype that Africa as a whole is a place of genocide and starvation.

Critics of Ojukwu say that he is the reason Africa is still portrayed as a continent of suffering and starvation, which frustrates the millions of people who live there today. Others say that he was a revolutionary leader who emancipated the Igbo. Regardless of the opinion, he is a true revolutionary figure that stood up to take charge of a crumbling section of Nigeria.

Sources:
http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2101162,00.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biafra
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Odumegwu_Ojukwu

Paul Rusesabagina is mostly known as the humanitarian Rwandan hotel manager who withheld and protected 1,268 Hutu and Tutsi refugees during the Rwandan Genocide. The Rwandan Genocide will go down in history as one of the bloodiest and deadliest times in Rwanda’s history, during which an estimated 500,000-1,000,000 Rwandans lives were taken. The origin of the war was a genocidal mass slaughter of the Tutsi and moderate Hutu by members of the Hutu majority. The genocide was so widespread that even top members of the national government were intimately involved, making it extremely difficult for members of society to escape the violence.

Interestingly enough, Rusesabagina was from both Hutu and Tusti descent. He was one of eight other siblings, and during his upbringing ethnic background did not pose as a threat. He was introduced to the concept and importance of protection at a young age when his family gave shelter to refugees during the late 1950’s and early 1960’s when issues between the Hutu and Tutsi were heating up. As Rusesabagina grew, he decided to capitalize on his passion of helping others and becoming closer to god by attending a seminary to become a minister of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church.

His endeavor did not go as planned, for after much trial and error Rusesabagina changed his life paths and found himself employed as the general manager of the Diplomates Hotel- a small portion of a hotel chain owned by the Swiss-Belgian Sabena conglomerate. Rusesabagina’s leadership skills were noticed early on in his career as manager, for he made a point of engaging with guests instead of sitting behind a desk. Rusesabagina took pride in his job, and

Rusesabagina’s leadership skills were founded in his ability to relate and manipulate people. For example, taking on the task of sheltering refugees took a lot more effort than simply opening up the doors to his hotel. When military captains would come to retrieve Tutsi refugees, Rusesabagina bribe them with alcohol, money, and cigars in order to leave the hotel. Bribing the military as a colossal gamble, for he was putting his own well being in jeopardy with these acts. Without his social skills, many of the Tutsi refuges would have been easily taken.

Rusesabagina also demonstrated his leadership skills by going to extreme levels in order to protect his “guests.” An example of this is within his ability to go to the ends of the earth in order to provide by repeatedly smuggling food and water into the hotel. Later, when the water supply was taken away, Paul used the water from the hotel’s pool so they wouldn’t become too dehydrated.

Blog Assignment #5

Anti colonism activities

The Mahdist movement under the leadership of Mohamed Ahmed Almahadi had a significant role in mobilizing the national passion and feelings of the Sudanese people. There were also some tribal and national movements at that time, but they were very weak and the connection between the Sudanese people themselves was also weak which made these movements loose their strength and ability to have an effect.

But the National People Movement was strengthening and affected by events in Egypt that took place after the First World War and the 1919 revolution .So for the first time in the Sudan the secret movements activities appeared, calling for revolution and demanding independence, this issue had spread among the Sudanese people. A new cultured and educated class of people emerged while a large number of the Sudanese people were affected by the patriotic feeling and belief which dominated the concept of every one and which was initiated by the Egyptians working in the Sudan who were affected by the 1919 revolution.

Meanwhile Britain worked to deepen the concept of the (Sudan for the Sudanese). In 1921 a secret association was formed named the Sudanese Union .Its members were the Students of Gordon college (now the University of Khartoum) which was under the administration of the colonialism, Meanwhile the white Brigade movement was formed and it was established by Ali Abdullatif, This movement played a vital role in the 1924 revolution while the national movement had called for unity with Egypt .On its side Britain called on its supporters from the tribal leaders to confront this movement .

Due to the violence practiced by the British expedition against the revolutionists and the terrorist methods of suppressing them, the Sudanese resort to the secret activities against colonialism and patriotism grew among the cultured class and was affected by different motives. Meanwhile the Egyptian army withdrew from Sudan for the second time in December 1924 AD after the assassination of sir le Stack, the governor general of the Sudan in Egypt, which sparkled a great unrest in the Sudan. In February 1938 AD the graduate’s congress was established comprising a great number of members from the cultured and educated people .It started its activities by providing social services then transferred to the political work and called on for the independence of the Sudan. Meanwhile, following the return of the Egyptian army to the Sudan, Britain worked for the issue of separating the Sudan from Egypt from one side and the separation of northern Sudan from its South from another side. The 1936 agreement between Egypt and Britain had focused on the condominium agreement which was signed in 1899 AD and stipulated that the governance of Sudan should remain shared between the two countries though Egypt tried to cancel this agreement and realize unity between the Sudan and Egypt. Long negotiations took place and then Egypt presented the case to the security council in 1947 AD which abstained from taking any decision then the Egyptian government from its side in the 8th of October 1951 repealed the 1936 agreement. The Egyptian July 1952 revolution was preceded by an Egyptian / British negotiations on the Sudanese affair and when the revolution erupted in the 23rd of July 1952 the Sudanese affair was decided to be separated from the issue of the British withdrawal from the Sues Canal in any negotiations between the two countries.