29
Sep 19

The Army Mental Health Stigma: How the Lack of Privacy Contributes to the Mental Health Stigma within the United States Army

By: Jessica McKeon

Being a Soldier within the United States Army is generally considered a high stress job. Terms that are synonymous with the job are “danger, long separations, grinding fatigue, and stress.” (Department of the Army, 2012). During the grueling months of basic training, each individual is imprinted with the Warrior Ethos. Six years, one marriage, and two kids later I can still recite the words to myself on command; “I will always place the mission first. I will neve accept defeat. I will never quit. I will never leave a fallen comrade.” (Department of the Army, 2012). These ethics are the central foundation of each Soldier’s purpose within the organization, regardless of their individual job. However, when looking through each of these classifications, one thing becomes apparently clear, Army doctrine is focused on the institution as a whole, not on the overall welfare of each individual.

While the Army has committed a significant amount of resources to mitigating the stigma associated with seeking mental health, it has not addressed one of the core issues preventing Soldier’s from pursuing proactive mental health; Career concerns. The Psychological Health Center of Excellence identifies career concerns as one of the primary factors stopping Soldier’s from reaching out, stating that if they pursue treatment at an early enough stage it is “least likely to yield negative career repercussions” (Kaplan, 2019). Additionally, many Soldiers hold security clearances, which can be suspended or revoked based on the providers as well as the Commander’s discretion. Indeed, according to Department of Defense Instruction 6490.08, Command Notification Requirements to Dispel Stigma in Providing Health Care to Service Members, Commanders are entitled to know about a Soldier’s “appointments made and missed, MEB/PEB data, conditions that render a soldier to be not deployable or medically ready, performance limiting medications/conditions, Command Directed Evaluation results, LOD (mental soundness) determinations, and profiles.” (U.S. Army Reserve, 2019). While this sounds reasonable for ensuring mission readiness, these disclosures are subjective to the health professional providing them, the Commanders perception of what is written, and the knowledge of diagnosis and limitations rarely stay within the Chain of Command.  Overall regulations on Soldier privacy rights, especially in regards to mental health, are vague and contribute to the overall stigma and unwillingness to seek help.

This is not to say that the Army hasn’t improved its approach to privacy within the mental health sector. Programs such as Military OneSource, suicide hotlines, and counselors within the Army’s Family Advocacy Programs provide Soldier’s with immediate access to trained counselors in case of an emergency (Military OneSource, 2019). However, these programs cannot replace the benefits of regular clinical therapy. By raising awareness of the validity of certain stigma within the Army, and the military as a whole, perhaps we can take one step closer to finding a viable solution that values both the long-term welfare of the Soldier as well as their immediate ability to contribute to the mission and organization as a whole.

 

References:

Department of the Army. (2012, November 7). APD 1- The Army. Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.army.mil/e2/c/downloads/303969.pdf.

Kaplan, D. A. (2019, July 8). Reducing Military Mental Health Stigma to Improve Treatment Engagement: Guidance for Clinicians. Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.pdhealth.mil/news/blog/reducing-military-mental-health-stigma-improve-treatment-engagement-guidance-clinicians.

Military OneSource. (2019). Mental Health- Resources. Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.militaryonesource.mil/health-wellness/mental-health/mental-health-resources.

U.S. Army Reserve. (2019). Behavioral Health – Commanders. Retrieved September 29, 2019, from https://www.usar.army.mil/BehavioralHealthCommanders/.


23
Sep 18

You Could Say It Was A Mountain

Depression is like being at the bottom of a mountain and needing to climb it to get back to civilization. You might be thinking it’s like being at the bottom of Everest, except that might be easier. It’s more like being at the bottom of Mauna Kea, which in it’s entirety is a mile higher than Everest and extends 19,700 feet below the Pacific Ocean. Because Depression is being submerged by this invisible force (water) and not being able to breath properly without help ( Therapy or Oxygen tank).

Now that you’re submerged, it’s time to climb that mountain, that mountain starts to represent impossible tasks. Every day tasks you struggle to complete anything from getting out of bed, cooking food for yourself, going two minutes down the block to the store, or finally completing that blog post you were meant to write for that psychology class.

You know those tasks will take you five minutes at the least to complete  if not seconds, and maybe thirty minutes at most, that if you just do the task it will be over and done with. And yet you could say it was a mountain. The task seems daunting, you feel unprepared, and everyone around you is just telling you to do it and be done. But you just can’t seem to find your foot hold on that mountain. Every time you try to pull yourself up you slip back down. And so it goes until one day your foot finds purchase. And you’re moving up the mountain and everything is looking bright above the water level as you break surface until you realized that you don’t have the next foothold and a new task looms ahead and somehow you are right back at the bottom of that mountain.

References:

Chelsea Ritschel in New York. (2018, August 30). How the ‘impossible task’ is a commonly-overlooked symptom of depression. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/depression-impossible-task-symptoms-sadness-twitter-a8515436.html

Schneider, F.W., Gruman, J.A., & Coutts, L.A. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.


22
Sep 18

Sweet, Sweet, Stress

We often use the phrase “chocolate face” around my house to remind ourselves not to get too stressed out due to temporary situations beyond anyone’s control. Sounds strange? Well, maybe there is a little psychology behind this abnormal expression.

What seemed like the start to an average Saturday morning last June, quickly changed when I found my mom dead on the balcony off of her bedroom. In immediately contacting the police, I told the 911 operator that it looked like she had chocolate covering her face. I even searched around her body to see if I could find a random candy wrapper, empty chocolate milk container, or anything that would make the situation more understandable in my moment of shock. Of course, it was actually blood that had escaped from her nose, but the idea of “chocolate face” became a reminder for my family to take a step back and realize that life is too short to let tense moments get the best of us. In discussing different psychological concepts concerning stress and our response to that feeling, my phrase of choice may not just be bizarre, but may actually be part of a pattern experienced by many who find themselves in stressful situations.

Psychologists Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman hypothesize that stress is effectively an affair between and individual and their environment. During the tenure of this interaction, described as the transactional model of stress, four complimentary parts work together to identify the cause of anxiety, weigh the necessity for a reaction, learn how to respond, and how to evaluate the outcomes (Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts, 2012).

Stressors are understood to be the environmental factors involved in inducing stress in an individual. These elements could be specific settings, certain people, or isolated circumstances that cause tension (Schneider et al., 2012). In terms of my mom’s death, she was not the cause of my agony, but the actual event in which I discovered that she was deceased gave me reason to become stressed.

An appraisal is the decision by the individual’s mind to react to the stressor (Schneider et al., 2012). Does this situation call for a fearful response? Are these people worth worrying about? How much strain should I feel because an event has occurred? If the answer is “yes” to the evaluation, then one begins to respond with some level of anxiety. While I seemed relatively calm in initially calling the police and notifying family members of my mother’s death this was likely due to shock, and after that wore off, I was left in a state of affliction with my stressor.

Coping is the next step in the relationship with stress, and it can involve two different behaviors to help reduce the burden. Problem-focused coping involves a forthright approach in which an individual actively works to minimize mental pressures (Schneider et al., 2012). If one was to find themselves in a social event that causes them to feel anxiety, they could cope by physically exiting the situation. If a peer is creating an issue at work, they may approach them directly to find relief. If schoolwork causes tension, then they may evaluate which parts are to blame and address those individually.

The second option for reducing stress is emotion-focused coping.  This method relies less on forceful behavior to solve one’s problems, and instead, targets changing one’s emotional approach to a stressful situation (Schneider et al., 2012). If someone is upset that they have no discretionary income to go on vacation, they may tell themselves to just be thankful for the food and shelter they do have. If their fostered dog gets adopted by another family, instead of sadness, they can be happy that the dog found a new home. If your team loses a close football game, you can decide that you are not sad, but excited for the experience gained in a tough contest.

My decision to manage the stress of my mother’s death by launching the “chocolate face” initiative seems to be a prime example of emotion-focused coping. Because the circumstance was out of my control, and could not be altered with any direct approach, I chose to modify my stressful feelings by searching for a positive outcome (Schneider et al., 2012). She was 54-years old at the time of her passing, so trying to convince myself that she had lived a long, and fruitful life seemed asinine. I was then left to contemplate the fragile nature of one’s time here on Earth and how quickly that can change, leaving me to try and never let stress overtake any situation.

The last phase of the transactional model of stress addresses the impact of anxiety on one’s health. Research has suggested that those who find themselves in increasingly stressful situations, and without the appropriate methods for coping, may experience higher levels of illness (Schneider et al., 2012). Stress can cause a variety of ailments from high blood pressure to autoimmune diseases, which may then lead to other stressors based on a decline in one’s well-being(Schneider et al., 2012). After my mom died, I did experience various moments of depression and headaches, but have worked through the process by trying to stay emotionally balanced.

In studying the factors of stress and coping, it seems that individuals follow a similar design in their behavioral choices, regardless of how unique these decisions may be. Lazarus and Folkman’s transactional model deconstructs each phase of the stress process including identifying the stressors, appraising reactions, finding coping mechanisms, and discussing future health outcomes. When I became stressed in response to my mother’s death last year, I made the decision to use emotion-focused coping to reduce my anxiety. The phrase “chocolate face” became a mantra to translate the feelings from my mother’s sudden departure, to an outlook based on overcoming life’s obstacles. Though I have not experienced any serious health ailments caused from this stressful situation, I still must remain diligent in not allowing this traumatic event to dictate my well-being. This would be the “sweetest” gift I could receive.

References:

Schneider, F.W., Gruman, J.A., & Coutts, L.A. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

 


06
Feb 18

Art and Neuroscience

Have you ever been curious about why some people are perfectly content being a “starving artist?” Maybe, it’s because their core job of creating art is stress relieving and relaxing. I must admit that when I first heard of art therapy several years ago, I was skeptical. I, like many others, thought that the purpose of art therapy was primarily for children or simply an outlet of expression. This is likely because I perceived art and neuroscience to be complete opposites. Though, the benefits of creativity and artwork is commonly underestimated, and research has suggested that participating in different forms of art can have several beneficial effects on one’s brain.

How do two seemingly opposite fields such as freely driven art and the scientific study of the brain work together? Curiously, art therapy has the potential to be much more than this, as it offers a different approach from the traditional talk therapy. Konopka suggests in their journal article, that there are significant connections between art therapy and healing the brain. Konopka notes that “Art therapy has gained popularity because it combines free artistic expression with the potential for significant therapeutic intervention” (Konopka, 2014). Konopka also discusses that even further research is necessary to fully understand the potential of art therapy and its relationship to cognitive functioning.

Many people have experienced the positive effects of art therapy, and some claim that it has even contributed to changing their life. Some brain injury survivors attending art therapy, share their stories on a local PBS news station. One participant, Jennifer, shares that she is now able to “Reconnect with her cognitive functions and mobility that she lost from her [brain] injury” (PBS, 2016). This program also discussed how “recreational therapy such as Art and music can help heal the brain at faster and more complete rates” (PBS, 2016). Martin, who is an art therapist also shares how art therapy contributed to understanding and centering a young man who was threatening homicide (American Therapy Association, 2018).

Perhaps you do not have a traumatic brain injury, and this whole concept seems very specific and non-relatable. Perhaps, the idea of attempting to create something visually appealing may be intimidating. Regardless of your ability or need, art therapy may still have beneficial effects on the brain. Konopka notes that “for years, we recognized that art-making allowed one to re-frame experiences, reorganize thoughts, and gain personal insight that often enhances one’s quality of life” (Konopka, 2014).  Writer, Priscilla Frank discusses in their article various findings supporting the notion that just 45 minutes of artwork can reduce cortisol levels (Frank, 2016). In Frank’s article, they discuss how the act of engaging in an artful activity relieves the very common experience of stress (Frank, 2016). Frank suggests that if you are feeling the burden of stress, you will likely find relief in some old-fashioned arts and crafts.

From relieving stress to rewiring one’s brain after a traumatic brain injury, participating in art is beneficial. It is important to also note that there is certainly a difference between art therapy and personal participation in art. Art therapists are trained at the Master level and “work with people who are challenged with medical and mental health problems, as well as individuals seeking emotional, creative, and spiritual growth” (American Art Therapy Association, 2018). However, regardless of your needs, engaging in forms of artistic participation can have widespread beneficial effects on your brain. So the next time your feeling stressed or overwhelmed, it’s a good idea to engage in some creative expression.

 

References

American Art Therapy Association. (2017). About Art Therapy. Retrieved from Arttherapy.org: arttherapy.org/about-art-therapy/

American Art Therapy Association. (2017). Story Library. Retrieved from Arttherapy.org: arttherapy.org/story-library/

Frank, P. (2016, June 16). Study says making art reduces stress, even if you kind of suck at it. Retrieved from Huffingtonpost.com: huffingtonpost.com/entry/study-says-making-art-reduces-stress_us_576183ece4b09c926cfdccac

Konopka, L. M. (2014). Where art meets neuroscience: a new horizon of art therapy. U.S. National Library of Medicine. DOI: 10.3325/cmj.2014.55.73

PBS (Director). (2016). Art therapy helps patients with traumatic brain injury. Retrieved from PBS.org: pbs.org/video/njtvnews-art-therapy-helps-patients-traumatic-brain-injury/.


10
Feb 17

Bandura’s Observational Theory Influences Violent Behavior Through Observation & Imitation Factors

[Pictured above] is a “Bobo Doll” used in Albert Bandura’s experiment. Findings from the study revealed evidence that supported his Observational Learning Theory.

Violent acts have spread like wild fire throughout the course of history.  Why do negligent acts keep reoccurring?  No one knows the sole reason why one person performs deceitful behavior, while another person does not.  Researchers have proposed several theories which explore the relationship between the brain and violent behavior, as well as other aspects that may trigger violence.  For instance, is delinquency contagious through exposure (personal or media-coverage)?  Some individuals suggest that crime is the result of protecting oneself or people they care about.  However, others insinuate that coercive behavior is acted out by revenge-seeking behavior to punish others.  Another theory investigates whether certain types of brains are more susceptible to violence or aggression than others.  Rowell Heusmann is a psychology from the University of Michigan who proposed that, “If you’re exposed to violence, you’re more likely to catch it (Swanson, 2015).”  Accordingly, this statement relates to Albert Bandura’s Observational Theory, also known as Social Learning Theory – SLT (1970).  The lesson commentary defines SLT as, “watching someone else perform a behavior, then the observer performs a similar behavior in a similar situation (L.5 Commentary).”  The report focuses on the observational theory relative to a clinical/counseling aspect of psychological practices.  Is violence typically learned by observing and imitating actions we see around us?  Moreover, does exposure to violence spark individuals to execute savagery themselves?

A gloomy shade of darkness asphyxiates the victims who have stared fear in the face at some point in their lives.  Words cannot describe the victimizing terror that preys on the lives of innocent people.   Violent trepidation spreads like an infectious disease into the minds of certain disturbed beings.  Why are some people susceptible to violent manipulation, whereas others cease and refrain from any type of hostility?  The Washington Post published an article called, “Why Violence is So Contagious” which highlights key aspects for condoning violent behavior (Swanson, 2015).  Ana Swanson proposes that exposure to violence has been significantly increasing throughout the years.  Conclusively, frequent revelations of violent behavior may be imitated by certain individuals (Swanson, 2015).   Furthermore, the Social Learning Theory illustrates why people imitate the actions they see around them.

The observational theory describes the way that people imitate certain behaviors (such as violence) is through a process known as, modeling.  An article by the British Journal of Psychology defines modeling as, “learning by watching, interpreting, and evaluating peers carrying out a task (Swanson, 2015).”  Additionally, effective modeling follows four stages described as: “observation/attention, emulation/retention, self-control/motor reproduction, and motivation/opportunity/self-regulation (Lesson 5 Commentary).”  The British Journal of Psychiatry (2015) revealed that initially, the learner actually observes the behavior and relevant elements in the learning environment while it is in action.  Second, an individual internalizes the skill by storing the learned series of steps in their memory, so they can remember or reference them later.  Next, the learner must have the motor-skills required to mimic the behavior.  Finally, they exhibit necessary talents and are provided with an opportunity to engage in the behavior (Swanson, 2015).  As a result, the learner converts their mental representation into a physical task.  Observing and imitating violent behavior is the most prevalent in the first, and potentially second steps of the modeling process.  For instance, hopefully it would not be in anyone’s mind set to follow all of these steps until the end while carrying out an act of violence.  Relatively, modeling is related to violent behavior because it drives learned mimicry of the observed behavior from the surrounding environment.

Why do people pick up violent behaviors?  Albert Bandura (1970) developed the observational theory, in which the brain adopts violent behavior mostly by instinctual processes.  Bandura conducted a study, called the “Bobo Doll Experiment,” in order to assess the validity of this causal relationship.  His study consisted of two groups of kids who observed an adult playing with the inflatable “Bobo Doll” under two different conditions.  The first group analyzed an adult engaging in aggressive play where they hit and kicked the doll several times.  However, the second group viewed the adult calmly and nicely play with the doll.  After observing the adults, the children played with the Bobo doll themselves.  The results displayed that the first group (observed aggressive play) were much more inclined to behave violently when they played with the toy.  Nonetheless, the second group mimicked playtime by engaging with the doll in a peaceful and friendly manner.  The article mentions, “the effect was stronger when the adult was of the same sex as the child, suggesting that kids were more likely to imitate people they identify with (Swanson, 2015).”  These findings concluded that people learn through imitating observed behavior.  Furthermore, the “Bobo Doll” experiment incited future research related to the social learning theory.  The article states, “Decades later, scientists began to discover just how much our brains are wired to imitate the actions we see around us – evidence suggesting that human behavior is less guided by rational behavior than people believed (Swanson, 2015).”  Conclusively, much of our behavior is caused by automatic instincts which mimic foreseen actions.

Additionally, findings from the Bobo Doll experiment intrigued a group of Italian researchers (1990), in which they utilized findings from the previous study to test their own theories about the observational theory’s relativity to neurological processing.  In their experiment, they investigated that parallel sets of “mirror neurons” were released in both of the following situations – while a monkey grasped an object and while observing another primate gripping the same object.  Firing of these analogous neurons is prevalent in both primates and humans.  This neural activity takes place in the premotor cortex, which is the brain region liable for “planning and executing actions (Swanson, 2015).”  Additionally, the premotor cortex is essential for learning things through imitation, including violent behaviors.  Neurons stimulate the premotor cortex If we are exposed to direct observation of someone acting violently.  When this brain region is activated, we feel like we are the ones actually doing the victimizing behavior.  Marco Iacoboni, a psychiatric professor, concluded that “these ‘mirror neurons’ (and activation of the premotor cortex) may be the biological mechanism by which violence spreads from one person to another (Swanson, 2015).”  The first thesis statement asks if violence is typically learned by observing and imitating actions we see around us?  Absolutely!  Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) explains that violent behavior is learned through exposure and imitation of an observed act of violence.  The study gave heart to the well-known expression:                             * Monkey SEE, Monkey DO!! *

Accordingly, the second half of my thesis statement asks if exposing people to violence prepares them to commit violent acts themselves.  For instance, is hostility increased when exposed to gruesome video games, television shows, or news?  In other words, does the prevalence of violence in the media expose us to heightened levels of aggressive behavior?  When individuals experience brutality through media programs or video games, they are more than likely not going to go out and commit violent acts themselves.  Although, after continuous exposure they may begin to adapt to these terroristic occurrences.  Alternatively, they may start to become numb to some of the gruesome imagery that they used to be completely appalled by.  For instance, the article compares these feelings to those fighting in war typically grow less disturbed by blood and violence (Swanson, 2015).  Overall, continual exposure to violence on personal real-life accounts, or through the media, is related to increased aggression. 

Hostile attribution bias means to interpret other’s actions as threatening or aggressive.  This bias may be influenced by violent media, or by repulsive actions including rejection, teasing, yelling, or belittling (Swanson, 2015).  Being subjected to cruel media makes people react in a more aggressive manner, as well as an increased likelihood to imitate revenge-seeking behavior.

Furthermore, the next objective will focus on the most effective way to prevent violent behavior from spreading.  For instance, in order to dispel acts of aggression, it is critical to limit the amount of exposure to violence that someone experiences.   Enforcing restrictions on the amount of violent media that is allowed to be published will make people not as inclined to negatively react or imitate violent behavior, compared to if they continued to regularly observe negative accounts of terror.  Incidences of corruption should not be seen as a normally occurring phenomena.  If a violent occasion is not relevant to the endangerment of people’s lives to a major degree, then it should be evaluated with stricter guidelines.  Evaluations will consider whether it is necessary to expose the news story to a significantly large audience, as well as consider how the audience members will respond to the situation (become more aggressive, lash out in a violent manner, become terrified or sad, etc.)  Majority of the time, violent media would be better left unsaid in order to protect the well-being of its viewers.  It is critical that we stop prompting the spread of violent news stories, because many people learn and imitate various behaviors (whether minor or extreme) that they learned primarily from media sources.  Limiting exposure to violence is one of the most effective ways to stop spreading around volatile behavior like an infectious disease.  In conclusion, acts of negligence keep on reoccurring since the human brain is wired to learn things (such as violent behavior) through imitating actions that we see around us.

      In conclusion, violence is a dark and fearful topic to discuss.  The outbreak of terroristic outrage is quickly spreading through patterns of acquired aggression and hostility.  Heightened levels of exposure to violence trigger it to spread at an increasing rate throughout the world.  Evidently, the most effective way to diminish or slow down spread of violence and terrorism is to get rid of cruel and unnecessary news stories, as well as limit exposure to violence.

Conclusively, Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) constitutes that violent behavior is learned through imitating observed behaviors that we notice in our surrounding environment.  Bandura connected our brain activity to instinctual responses to the observed actions surrounding us.  A group of Italian researchers (1990) performed a study on how a monkey responded to grabbing an object himself, or analyzing what happened to the monkey when he watched another primate grasp the same object.  Results of the study implicated that the area of the brain responsible for ‘planning and executing actions’ (premotor cortex) is stimulated by a parallel set of ‘mirror neurons.’  These neurons are released when we observe someone acting out in a violent manner, and we imagine ourselves performing the violent action ourselves.  Dr. Marco Iacoboni (1990) formed one of the most valuable conclusions of this report, “these neurons may be the biological mechanism by which violence spreads from one person to another (Swanson, 2015).” Modeling threatening behavior typically results from high exposure rates to the media.  Likewise, mimicking such behavior causes amplified levels of aggression and rage, which may impair an individuals’ ability to plan and execute actions appropriately.  In conclusion, humans will follow the four steps of effective modeling proposed in Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) in order to learn various things through imitation (such as violent behaviors) and observation of a behavior in which they learn to mimic themselves.

 

 

 

References:

Swanson, A. S. A. (2015, December 15). Why violence is so contagious. Washington Post. Retrieved online from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/12/15/why-violence-is-so-contagious/?utm_term=.fb549a29f126

 

Pennsylvania State University (n.d.). Lesson 5 Commentary. Retrieved online at https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1834710/modules/items/2173666


07
Oct 16

The Rejection: Hopelessness Theory of Depression

I’d like to use a case example to illustrate the hopelessness theory of depression in this blog post.

A 25-year-old man who had trained for years in animation and game design received admission to a Canadian university for a course in game design. He applied for a student visa to Canada, and settled in to wait for his paperwork to be processed. He bought his flight tickets and started to look for places to stay in Toronto, where he would be studying. The weeks passed, and his course start date came and went, but his visa didn’t come through. He went repeatedly to the consulate office to ask for expedition of the process, but got no answers. Thoroughly frustrated, he delayed his flight tickets twice, and still didn’t get his visa. Finally, he got his passport back in the mail. There was no visa stamp in his passport. His application had been rejected.

Thus ensued a period of major depression for this young man. He had applied for loans, bought flight tickets, and paid his tuition fees to the university. He was set to lose a large sum of money, and he had no backup plan of action. No job, no money, and seemingly, no future. He was in a situation where he felt he had no control over his future outcome. He had experienced a huge setback.

This life experience, wherein he had experienced such an unpredictable and uncontrollable setback, made the man feel thoroughly helpless, and as per Seligman’s (1975) learned helplessness model of depression, the man gave up his efforts to cope. Instead of looking for other options like a job in his hometown or further developing his portfolio, the man lay in bed and grew increasingly depressed.

Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale (1978) proposed the attributional reformulation of the learned helplessness model of depression, which suggested that depression was caused by pessimistic attributions on the part of the person, leading to a negative outcome expectancy, that is, helplessness. The man believed that his visa was rejected because he was simply no good, had no luck, and was not meant to succeed in life. This belief was an internal, stable, and global attribution—the man believed that nothing would ever go well in life again, and that this setback was proof of his inadequacy.

The hopelessness theory of depression (HTD), as proposed by Abramson, Metalsky, and Alloy (1989), suggests that depression occurs in people with a negative attribution style, known as a pessimistic explanatory style or a depressogenic attribution style. The man believed that the cause of the aversive life event, the visa rejection, was internal (he was not good enough), stable (was absolute and forever-lasting), and global (he had no luck). Hopelessness, as defined as “the expectation that highly desirable outcomes will not occur and that one is powerless to change the situation” (Needles & Abramson, 1990, p. 156), thus set in.

The man began to show signs characteristic of hopelessness depression—low self-esteem, lethargy, and apathy (Abela, Gagnon, & Auerbach, 2007). He became more dependent on people around him, while at the same time attempting to isolate himself. This contradictory behavior naturally did not lead to positive outcomes for him. However, he was lucky enough to have plenty of social support, in the form of friends, who nudged him towards a more positive attribution style—what Needles and Abramson (1990) call an enhancing attribution style. He began to consider his future options in a more positive light. He reevaluated his professional outlook, judged himself to be a skilled animator and designer, and recognized that he had jobs that were open to him. He received a job offer, and he evaluated the cause of this offer in a stable, internal and global way—he was a skilled professional, and he now had a path open for his future. He also decided to reapply for the Canadian student visa, and had hopes for his acceptance.

References

Abela, J. R. Z., Gagnon, H., & Auerbach, R. P. (2007). Hopelessness depression in children: An examination of the symptom component of the hopelessness theory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31(3), 401–417.

Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.

Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, I. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49–74.

Needles, D. J., & Abramson, L. Y. (1990). Positive life events, attributional style, and hopefulness: Testing a model of recovery from depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 156–165.

Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco: Freeman.


25
Sep 16

Unknown Benefits of Observing

I was born and raised in Istanbul, Turkey. Starting from first grade until the end of high school, I have attended the same international school in Istanbul. Therefore, my classmates and I have a twelve year of shared history together. We grew up together and our families have built very strong friendship bonds. When we all graduated high school and scattered all over the world for college, some of our friends started to change and develop new and different habits. Some of them started drinking and some of them started smoking, while a fewer number of our friends started partying a little “harder”.

When we graduated college and moved back to Istanbul as adults, all but one of my friends were able to quit their newly developed bad habits, one way or another. One of my best friends, Dennis, could have easily been labeled as an addict when he moved back home. He was jobless, made new friends we have never met before, stopped working out and eating healthy completely. He slept all throughout the day while we were at work, and stayed up all night doing drugs. Sometimes he would not sleep for 2 or 3 days straight because of binge drug taking.

As we are a very close group of friends, we have tried many things to help him cope with his problem. We tried many interventions.We tried talking to his cousin. A group of 5 friends even went to a rehabilitation center with him for a week to understand him better. Nothing truly worked! As soon as he was left alone, he was craving drugs, saying he doesn’t like it when the reality sets in. Failing after a couple of tries, we have decided to try something new and more effective.

We rented apartments in the same complex, making sure at least one person was always present with Dennis. We helped him look for jobs and get ready for interviews, which resulted in him getting a job in a field he really wanted to work; sports entertainment. One of our friends was a chef, so she cooked us meals every night and breakfast on weekends, implicitly making Dennis start eating healthy. We played basketball games two nights a week, making sure we were keeping him active and that he was spending energy. After a couple of weeks, he started acting like one of us. He told me that he enjoys how I eat breakfast every morning before work, so we started eating together. He told one of our other friends that he likes how he dresses up for work, so they went shopping together. One day at a time, after being able to observe how his peers do ‘normal’, Dennis started to act like us and slowly quit his habit. Even today, after 5 years, he says that observing the same ritual over and over again made it easier to act upon.

I believe it is wrong to connect observational learning with just negative behaviors. It can also be used to influence positive behaviors. An important chunk of learning depends on us observing and modelling others; this observation and modelling starts when we are just infants. “Indeed, the research and scholarly work conducted by Bandura and colleagues set the occasion for the social cognitive perspective of learning (Bandura, 1986), which seemed to challenge the possibility that all behavior could be accounted for by respondent and operant processes alone (Fryling et al, 2011).” It is just astonishing how social psychology could be applied into our everyday lives so easily.

References

Fryling, M. J., Johnston, C., & Hayes, L. J. (2011). Understanding Observational Learning: An Interbehavioral Approach. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27(1), 191–203.

 


24
Sep 16

(Clinical/Counseling) Hopelessness Theory of Depression . . . and me!

Who doesn’t need a mental health tune-up from time to time? I know I sure do!

There is a history of depression in my family, so any time I start to feel a little “blue,” I have a counselor that I book a few appointments with. I have been doing this off and on for years with someone whom I trust and have an excellent rapport with. Two days ago, I walked into his office and before he could ask how I was doing, I blurted out, “Hopelessness Theory of Depression (HTD).” Of course, after a very quizzical look, I explained to him that I was studying Applied Social Psychology and this week’s lesson included HTD, so of course, I am now somewhat of an expert (insert sarcastic smile).

I had to reassure him that I was not suffering from any sort of syndrome where I randomly blurt out words, such as Tourette Syndrome, where symptoms include vocal tic(s) (Robertson, 2000). Once he was reassured, he humored my claim of academic knowledge in terms of HTD and we discussed how it applied to me.

Before I give my true to life story, I have a MAJOR spoiler alert: this is a pretty boring, and drama free therapy session. I’m a rather private person, so I will keep my exciting and drama filled sessions off of the public forum!

We decided to see if, with what I have learned this week, if I was at risk for HTD and started with the first element, “a vulnerable person (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).” To label me as a vulnerable person, I would have to have a consistently negative outlook on events that have occurred in my life and their causes (sometimes called the pessimistic explanatory style or the depressogenic attribution style) (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). Well, let’s look at what we discovered, shall we? What is my style? Is it stable, meaning do I think the cause of the negative things in my life will be forever unchanging (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012)? Of course, I had to decide what was the biggest stressor in my life at the moment and I came up with one rather quickly: being EXHAUSTED from raising my toddler and going to school full-time. An argument could be made that this condition is stable. The old, unshrunk (my own made up word for “before therapy”) me probably would have perceived it as a stable condition. “Unshrunk me” probably would have felt like there was no end in sight and that these two stressors would always be a constant (and hence stable) part of my life. Years of therapy and countless dollars (actually, the dollar amount I have spent can be counted, but that would require too much time and I have many other things that I should be doing) spent have helped me change my perspective on situations like this. I have learned to view these, not as stable conditions, but as stressors that will some day end, and when it comes to the years raising my son, will end all too soon (sometimes stressors can be an incredibly beautiful thing that you cannot imagine your life without).

We also needed to contemplate whether or not my perception of my level of exhaustion had global attributions, in other words, did this greatly influence a lot of the aspects of the rest of my life (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012)? My therapist and I made the case that my level of exhaustion was considered global; if anyone has been genuinely exhausted, they know that fatigue affects everything in your life. We decided that we had indeed made the case for global attribution.

The second key to HTD is “negative environmental circumstances (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).” This is where everything fell apart. I really had to scrape to come up with what was the most negative thing in my life at the moment, and my goodness, I hate to even attach the word “negative” with the thought of raising my incredibly handsome (seriously, it’s scientifically proven, my child is probably the most adorable child that has ever lived; the “scientists” that made this claim are myself, his father, and his grandparents) son. Please don’t get me wrong, I have had incredibly traumatic experiences in my life and I’m sure I will have more in the future, no one gets off this planet unscathed.

With one eyebrow raised, my therapist asked me if, according to HTD, if I was at risk for hopelessness depression. The answer? No. No I am not. At other times and other circumstances, I may have been, but again, a lot of time and money has been spent in my pursuit to acquire the tools to live a (somewhat) mentally healthy life. I am incredibly thankful for that. I prepared to leave his office with the statement, “Life is what it is, but for me, it is not hopeless.” Of course, his reply?

week-five-blog-picture“It makes me feel just fine!”

References

Robertson, M. M. (2000). Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment. Brain: A Journal of Neurology , 123, 425-462.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd Edition ed.). Thousand Oaks, California, United States of America: SAGE Publications, Inc.


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