President John F. Kennedy: Inaugural Address 1961

(As of right now, I don’t have a fully formed introduction or conclusion.)

In 1960, John F. Kennedy won a hotly contested presidential election against Republican and former Vice President Richard Nixon. The United States was in the midst of the Cold War.

In his inaugural address, John F. Kennedy immediately establishes his ethos: “Vice President Johnson, Mr. Speaker, Mr. Chief Justice, President Eisenhower, Vice President Nixon, President Truman, reverend clergy, fellow citizens, we observe today not a victory of party, but a celebration of freedom – symbolizing an end, as well as a beginning – signifying renewal, as well as change.” Inspired by Thomas Jefferson’s inaugural address (which followed a highly contested election similar to that between Kennedy and Nixon), Kennedy makes sure to address that he does not want his victory to be solely a victory for the Democratic Party. Rather than “rubbing it in the faces” of the Republican Party, so to speak, Kennedy looks to establish himself as a president who values unity over partisanship. Later in the speech, Kennedy proves himself a courageous leader when, with particular emphasis, he says, “In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger. I do not shrink from this responsibility – I welcome it.” He encourages the United States to have faith in him because he is up to the challenge of leading the country through difficult times. Kennedy finishes his speech by once again establishing his ethos as an unselfish leader who believes in a higher power: “With a good conscience our only sure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God’s work must truly be our own.”

Throughout the address, Kennedy establishes logos through different classifications, analogies, facts, and maxims. Kennedy classifies the world (the all-encompassing class) into five different categories – “old allies whose cultural and spiritual origins we share,” “new States whom we welcome to the ranks of the free,” “people in the huts and villages across the globe struggling to break the bonds of mass misery,” “that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations,” and “nations who would make themselves our adversary” – and discusses his plans for dealing with each of them. Kennedy employs an analogy by describing the spread of Communism from Russia to less developed countries like Cuba as a reminder that “those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside,” meaning the spread of Communism would prove futile to those who adopted its principles. He uses the facts of the Cold War (the arms race, space race, et cetera) to make proposals for potential healing with Russia: “Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms – and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations.” Kennedy also uses maxims, or common phrases, from the Bible to connect with his mostly Christian audience.

Kennedy establishes pathos primarily by appealing to American patriotism, an important concept during a period when a patriotic spirit was essential to success during the Cold War. He reminds his audience of their forefathers and finds parallels between “the first revolution” and the current generation, “born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage.” He refers to the core American value of liberty and this generation’s dedication to the survival of that value. After promoting a patriotic spirit, Kennedy calls the nation to action; he needs the help and support of the American people if the United States is to help create a safer world. He appeals to the emotions of those who lost loved ones and inspires the country to act when he says, “The graces of young Americans who answered the call of service surround the globe.” Although a difficult task to undertake, Kennedy assures his audience that he has faith in their generation. Claiming he would never wish to be part of a different generation, he proclaims, “The energy, the faith, the devotion which we bring to this endeavor will light our country and all who serve it – and the glow from that fire can truly light the world.”

Besides establishing ethos, pathos, and logos, Kennedy uses two evident rhetorical devices. The first is a triad, or the power of three: “…where the strong are just and the weak secure and the peace preserved.” The triad is particularly effective because it is memorable; it has been proven that people tend to remember phrases that come in threes. Kennedy also employs chiasmus, when he uses a phrase and later inverts it to make a new but related point. “Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate.” Perhaps the most famous line of the speech – and one of the most famous lines in American history – is the chiasmus “Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.”