Figure 1: A graph comparing ozone levels at the south pole to levels present before the formation of the ozone hole sourced from the NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory [1].  

The figure above is showing a comparison of ozone concentrations in the atmosphere above the South Pole between the years 1967 and 2017.  The x axis is the year of measurement and the y axis is the percentage of increase or decrease from the reference level (average of values between 1962 and 1978).  Three different values are plotted: the annual average in blue, the average across a reference month for each year (October) in light blue, and a trendline for the October measurements in red.  The measurement was done via The Dobson Spectrophotometer at the South Pole, which measures ozone concentration by comparing incoming amounts of light from the sun at wavelengths that are strongly absorbed by ozone with those that are not [1].

Ozone concentrations have immense implications on human life.  Observations at the South Pole are also important to establish the worldwide trend.  Ozone strongly absorbs incoming ultraviolet light which can damage human DNA and lead to skin cancer in high doses [2].  Depletion in ozone layers worldwide would lead to increases in skin cancer rates and other skin diseases.  This would also require people to stay away from sunlight more often and wear sunblock whenever possible to avoid these effects.  Chlorofluorocarbons, chemicals commonly used in refrigerators and aerosol sprays since the 1960s, were discovered to be responsible for a depletion of ozone in the atmosphere in 1985 and were subsequently banned [2].  This can clearly be seen reflected in the data, as ozone at the south pole was on a downward trend since the 1960s, reaching a minimum in 1997.  Although production was stopped earlier it took time for natural cycles to reduce the effects of chlorofluorocarbons and restore ozone.  This process is still taking place, as shown by the gradual upward trend of ozone.  While not all areas of the world were affected as significantly as the South Pole, the declining ozone concentration was still hazardous to all humans and it is for the better that it is being restored.

1. US Department of Commerce. (2005, October 01). GML South Pole ozone hole. Retrieved April 09, 2021, from https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/dv/spo_oz/ozdob.html
2. World of change: Antarctic ozone hole. (n.d.). Retrieved April 09, 2021, from https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/world-of-change/Ozone

Toxaphene is a hazardous chemical that was commonly used as a pesticide for growing cotton as well as for livestock until its use was completely cancelled in 1990 in the United States [1].  Because of this, it is no longer being expelled into the environment, but it still exists in high levels in certain areas that experienced either runoff from farming or dumping of waste from manufacturing plants.  One such place is the Terry Creek outfall site in Brunswick Georgia, which has been polluted with toxaphene since the 50s [2].  This is the result of a chemical manufacturing plant owned by Hercules Inc.  dumping waste from pesticide production into the creek from 1948 to 1980 [3].  The effects of this chemical are still being felt in the region, and cleanup is still ongoing.  A local newspaper, The Brunswick News, describes that efforts to dredge and clean Terry Creek have been underway since 1972, and have made some progress, but not as much as was expected.  While fish have returned to the previously barren creek, they are still not safe to eat [2].  

Persistent exposure to water high in toxaphene, or consumption of fish with high concentrations of toxaphene could result in persistent health problems for people in the area.  Chronic exposure to toxaphene can result in liver disease as well as an increased risk of cancer, with toxaphene being classed as a group B2 carcinogen [1].  This inability to access Terry Creek has also hurt more than Brunswick’s health.  Some residents believe that Terry Creek waterfront, if properly developed, could be an enormous economic boon for the town.  As it stands, this resource still remains inaccessible, and some believe that the EPA is not doing its due diligence to clean the waters.  As of now, the Justice Department is reviewing the case to advise for further action [2].  Toxaphene has left a lasting impact on the lives of the people living in this town, 30 years after its ban.  This shows the long term effects persistent pollutants can have both on the environment and a population.

1. Toxaphene. (n.d.). Retrieved March 25, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/toxaphene.pdf
2. Wolfe, W. (2018, December 31). Terry Creek cleanup a long-time coming, not done yet. Retrieved March 26, 2021, from https://thebrunswicknews.com/news/local_news/terry-creek-cleanup-a-long-time-coming-not-done-yet/article_0bdcb161-30e1-5aa4-a0e6-435c618837a0.html
4. Cleanup settlement will ELIMINATE Toxaphene contamination at a FORMER Pesticide facility in Georgia. (2021, February 03). Retrieved March 26, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/cleanup-settlement-will-eliminate-toxaphene-contamination-former-pesticide-facility#:~:text=The%20Terry%20Creek%20Dredge%20Spoil%20Areas%2FHercules%20Outfall%20Superfund,with%20toxaphene%20from%20Hercules%E2%80%99%20prior%20pesticide%20facility%20operations.

Industrial smog is a direct result of the burning of coal for the purposes of creating energy.  The burning of coal releases many air pollutants, including sulfur and nitrogen oxides that both hang in the air around a coal plant and react with the atmosphere to form other products (i.e. sulfuric and nitric acids) [1].  When such pollutants are concentrated at a high density, to the point where they form a visible cloud, it is known as industrial smog.  The problem of industrial smog can be exacerbated by a process known as temperature inversion.  Temperature inversion occurs when a layer of cold air forms near the ground preventing the dissipation of pollutants [1].  Under normal circumstances, the warm air near the surface of the Earth would rise to a higher altitude, brining pollutants along with it.  Temperature inversion, however, allows these pollutants to concentrate near the surface and directly affect human life.  Prolonged exposure to smog leads to an increased risk of lung cancer or other respiratory diseases.  Once smog reacts with the environment, it can also cause acid rain in the surrounding area resulting in damage to drinking water sources as well as corrosion of buildings [1].

One country that particularly afflicted by industrial smog is Poland, due to their long history of coal use and wood burning for both energy and heating homes.  In 2019, Poland’s per capita energy consumption (15,823kWh) from coal was nearly 1.5 times the United States’ (9,573kWh) and 14 times the United Kingdom’s (1,079kWh) [2].  Poland is also overrepresented in the share of deaths due to outdoor air pollution.  In 2017 Poland had 5.71% of all deaths due to outdoor air pollution, despite only having 0.5% of the world’s population in the same year [2].  An effort to address this problem has begun in the Polish city of Krakow.  In 2019, a ban was placed on the burning of coal and wood within homes.  A study in 2019 has shown that the air quality in Krakow is improving at a faster rate than surrounding areas, but the root problem is still there.  The federal government of Poland is also contributing subsidies to a “Clean Air” initiative, which has replaced 70,000 of Poland’s 3 million domestic coal boilers with cleaner alternatives within 2 years [3].  While this change is needed, it is a noticeably small portion of total boilers replaced.  The air quality in Poland needs to be improved, and I believe that the ultimate coal to this end should be to replace all coal boilers and decrease reliance on coal for energy.

1. Molles, M. C., & Borrell, B. (2016). Air, Water, and Soil Pollution. In Environment: Science, issues, solutions (pp. 388-400). New York, NY: W. H. Freeman Macmillan Learning.
2. Outdoor Air Pollution. (n.d.). Retrieved February 05, 2021, from https://ourworldindata.org/country/outdoor-air-pollution
3. Wilczek, M. (2021, February 22). Poland’s public tries to clear the air. Retrieved March 10, 2021, from https://balkaninsight.com/2021/02/18/polands-public-tries-to-clear-the-air/

Andrew Tamis

Mountaintop removal is an extremely common mining technique in the Appalachian region of the United States; one that has immense effects on the surrounding environment.  A 2009 found higher rates of cardiovascular disease, birth defects and cancer localized around areas where mountaintop removal had taken place.  In one area in West Virginia, a possible link can be drawn between these ailments and the local drinking water that had been contaminated by runoff and pollutants caused by mountaintop mining (The Coal Mine Next Door).  While it is extremely difficult to measure the impact to human lives and health in a dollar value, the cost to clean up local streams can be assessed.  In 2016, the Obama administration passed the Steam Protection Rule, which has since been repealed by the Trump administration.  This rule required companies conducting mountaintop removal to monitor and restore nearby freshwater.  A government-funded study placed the cost to implement the rule at $52 million, whereas a coal industry-funded study claimed the rule would result in the loss of upwards of 77,000 jobs  (The Coal Mine Next Door),  Due to the company’s need to turn a profit, the cost imposed by any legislation would naturally be reflected in the coal produced and the resulting energy on its way to consumers.  However, this may be a necessary cost of maintaining the environment around these mines.  This job loss statistic may also be hyperinflated, as it was paid for by the companies opposed to the legislation.  However, it is worth asking if these jobs are worth maintaining if they are harming those both doing the jobs and living near where they are done.  If these jobs must be lost to reduce the impact of mountaintop removal, then perhaps new jobs could be created from both environmental cleanup and new energy sources.

Even if mountaintop removal isn’t entirely moved away from, I believe that the companies undergoing mountaintop removal should, at minimum, be responsible for minimizing environmental impact and for restoring any resources that are destroyed.  If companies need to raise prices to supplement the costs and prevent job loss, then I believe they should.  If the increased cost of mountaintop removal causes it to become unprofitable, then the practice will naturally decline.  The environmental costs of these practices are currently being paid by people living near these sites in terms of loss of quality of life, rather than money.  Another example of the environmental cost of harvesting and transporting nonrenewable resources is an oil spill.  It is just this year that the transport company Patriot Marine, LLC is being sued for removal costs of an oil spill they caused in 2018 (Ashcraft). If the cost and responsibility falls directly on the companies, then there would be no need to spend time taking these companies to court after every incident, sometimes years later.  In the meantime, the human and environmental cost wouldn’t need to be paid.

The coal mine next door. (2020, May 27). Retrieved February 23, 2021, from https://www.hrw.org/report/2018/12/10/coal-mine-next-door/how-us-governments-deregulation-mountaintop-removal-threatens#

Ashcraft, E. (2021, February 17). United States Asks court to require company to pay $1 million for oil spill cleanup – agriculture. Retrieved February 23, 2021, from https://lawstreetmedia.com/agriculture/united-states-asks-court-to-require-company-to-pay-1-million-for-oil-spill-cleanup/

Andrew Tamis

India is soon projected to become the most populous country on the planet by as soon as 2024, despite being only the 7th largest country in terms of landmass (Ritchie,2019).  Although the growth has slowed down somewhat recently, this still presents a clear and present problem for future overpopulation if it is not brought even more under control.  As shown in the graph below, India’s population has been growing explosively since the 1950s, but this growth rate is beginning to slow and is projected to slow even more in the future (India).

Recent declines in the growth rate have been attributed to a push for rising education levels of women and increased urbanization.  Because of this, the fertility rate is currently hovering near 2.2 children per woman, nearing the exact replacement rate of 2.1 (Chandrashekhar, 2019).  While this is promising, it is important to remember that no country, especially not one as large as India, is a monolith.  Nine of India’s Twenty Two major states are above replacement levels, and they are some of the country’s poorest (Chandrashekhar, 2019).  Because of this, any solution by the Indian government will have to be targeted towards the most problematic regions.

Originally, India aimed to reduce population growth with extremely controversial sterilization program in the seventies.  This program started out voluntary, but was eventually condemned for forcibly sterilizing more than 8 million people, with a possible focus on ethnic minorities (Chandrashekhar, 2019).  While in theory this would reduce the growth rate, the ethical implications are appalling.  Negative reactions to this program are what prompted the Indian government to shift its focus to women’s health and reproductive education.  The next few years will show how effective this attempt will be, and it will rely on how effectively the government can reach out to their most impoverished communities.

Chandrashekhar, V. (2019, December 12). Why India is making progress in slowing its population growth. Retrieved February 05, 2021, from https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-india-is-making-progress-in-slowing-its-population-growth

India. (n.d.). Retrieved February 05, 2021, from https://ourworldindata.org/country/india

Ritchie, H. (2019, April 16). India will soon overtake China to become the most populous country in the world. Retrieved February 05, 2021, from https://ourworldindata.org/india-will-soon-overtake-china-to-become-the-most-populous-country-in-the-world

Andrew Tamis

Ecological Footprint: Switzerland

Switzerland has been attempting to tackle and reduce its ecological footprint for many years, being the first country to officially work with the Global Footprint Network in 2006 (Global Footprint Network).  One of the main issues that the Swiss government is attempting to tackle is the country’s use of fossil fuels.  As of 2016, almost three quarters of Switzerland’s ecological footprint was directly resulting from the use of fossil fuels (Switzerland Federal Statistical Office).  They plan to transition away from fossil fuels and towards more renewable energies in the coming years.

The graph above, shows Switzerland’s per Capita sustainable production of natural resources (biocapacity), the consumption of those resources (ecological footprint), as well as the deficit between those numbers.  Since working with the Global Footprint Network in 2016, they have reduced this deficit from nearly -5 global hectares to -3 global hectares per capita (Global Footprint Network).  While this reduction is admirable, it still places them at a very sizable deficit, and if everyone in the world lived like Switzerland, the resources of 3 Earths would be required (Switzerland Federal Statistical Office).  However, while their current per capita footprint puts them in line with their use in 1960, factoring in the growth of both Switzerland’s and the world’s population is causing a larger and larger global deficit.

I believe that this illustrates that in many places where action to reduce the ecological footprint is being taken, progress is happening slower than it needs to.  Switzerland’s current goal is live within the means of one planet by 2050 (Global Footprint Network), and I believe that everyone should strive to meet and exceed that goal.  We should not be discouraged by efforts to reduce ecological footprints not having dramatic effects, we should be encouraged to try harder.

Global Footprint Network. (2017, January 10). Switzerland. Global Footprint Network. Retrieved January 28,2021, from https://www.footprintnetwork.org/2017/01/10/switzerland/.

Switzerland Federal Statistical Office. (n.d.). Switzerland’s ecological footprint. Retrieved January 28, 2021, from https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/en/home/statistics/sustainable-development/more-sustainable-development-indicators/ecological-footprint.html