Yearly averages of CO2 recorded at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Retrieved from: US Department of Commerce, NOAA. (2005, October 01). Global monitoring Laboratory – carbon cycle greenhouse gases. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/weekly.html

In this plot, the daily and monthly averages of CO2 prevalence at Mauna Loa, Hawaii are cataloged. The graph begins with data from March of 2020 and provides full data on every month until this past March 2021. The black dots on the graph represent daily averages, the short red lines represent weekly averages, and the blue lines comprise data from the monthly average. The graph is updated weekly, from Sunday through Saturday. The data is collected at the Observatory near the summit of Mauna Loa, at a high altitude of 3400 m, which means it is well situated to measure representative air masses. The air analyzed is from over the Pacific Ocean, and has had several days to “mix” so that the variability of CO2 pockets has diminished, and the CO2 is pretty evenly distributed. The measurements are frequently and rigorously calculated, ensuring that the measurements are as accurate as possible. The levels of CO2 are analyzed through a technique called the Cavity Rind-Down Spectroscopy (CRDS) which measures the rate of absorption of light circulating in the optical cavity. Through this mechanism, the amount of CO2 can be calculated. This instrument also measures the amount of CH4 and CO within the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide is one of the most important long-lived greenhouse gases of our Earth. It absorbs less heat, but is more abundant and persists in the atmosphere longer. CO2 also specifically absorbs wavelengths of thermal energy that are not absorbed by water vapor, which adds to the greenhouse effect uniquely. In looking at the impact of CO2 quantitatively, the increases in CO2 are responsible for 2/3 of the total energy imbalance, which is causing the Earth’s temperature to rise. Carbon dioxide also reacts with water particles in the ocean, which lowers the ocean’s overall pH levels. The drop in pH due to this reaction is called ocean acidification (Lindsey, 2020).

Globally, carbon dioxide levels are the highest they have been in 800,000 years, with the measurement totaling 409.8 parts per million in 2019. This number is only expected to rise within the following years, with the rate of global increase being around 100 times faster than previous years. This increase in the trend of CO2 will continue to harm our climate, with temperatures expected to increase leading to a disrupted water cycle, increasing sea levels, increasing natural disaster prevalence, and destroying ecosystems. This all has profound impacts on human life and should propel us to advocating for the protection of the climate.

References:

The causes of climate change. (2021, February 08). Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://climate.nasa.gov/causes/

Lindsey, R. (2020, August 14). Climate change: Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide: NOAA Climate.gov. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-atmospheric-carbon-dioxide

US Department of Commerce, NOAA. (2005, October 01). Global monitoring Laboratory – carbon cycle greenhouse gases. Retrieved April 08, 2021, from https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/weekly.html

In a Los Angeles Times news article published in October of 2020, the author chronicles the history and discovery of half a million barrels of DDT that were dumped off the coast of Santa Catalina Island in California between 1947 – 1982 (Xia, 2020). During that time, one of the largest manufacturers of DDT was based in Los Angeles, and it was praised for being on the forefront of (what was thought of at the time as being) “the greatest contribution to the future of the health world”. The US alone would use more than 80 million pounds of DDT annually (Xia, 2020). However, when the chemical was eventually banned in 1972, the production plants like the one in LA had to figure out how to dispose of the chemical. Instead of properly disposing of the barrels of DDT, workers at the plant decided to dump the barrels into the Santa Monica Basin. If the barrels were floating, they would even puncture them so that would sink to the bottom of the ocean. This is an improper method of disposal for the chemical and has caused a plethora of environmental and health problems including contamination of phytoplankton, fish, pelicans and other birds, and sea lions (Xia, 2020).

DDT is an insecticide most commonly used in agriculture in order to manage crops. Although the chemical was banned by the United States in 1972, a lot of countries still use the chemical. It also has historically been used in the treatment of lice, and in other countries is used in the prevention of mosquitos and malaria (“DDT- A Brief History and Status”, 2021). Combating malaria and other insect-vector diseases was the original intent of DDT, and it was widely utilized during the Allies in WWII for that purpose. However once it was realized how effective DDT was in insect control, it began to be utilized on an industrial agricultural scale and even in personal homes and gardens (“DDT Factsheet”, 2017).

Image of beachgoers being sprayed with DDT

People can be exposed to DDT from eating foods grown in places where DDT was used, or from eating meat, fish, or dairy products. DDT is transmitted to humans through ingestion or absorbed through breathing or touching contaminated products. When in the body, following high doses of exposure, DDT can cause nausea and vomiting, shakiness, and seizures. Fortunately, indirect exposure to DDT is considered non-toxic to humans. In lab samples and experiments, DDT also caused liver problems and led to reproductive issues. Although more research needs to be done, DDT is also considered a human carcinogen – which is a cancer-causing substance (“DDT Factsheet”, 2017). Preventative efforts have been effective in the ban of DDT and in limiting its subsequent harmful health effects, however, discoveries like that found in the Pacific Ocean detailed in the news report remind us of the harmful history we have with DDT and how it’s consequences are still salient today.

References:

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) FACTSHEET. (2017, April 07). Retrieved March 24, 2021, from https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/DDT_FactSheet.html

Ddt – a brief history and status. (2021, March 17). Retrieved March 24, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status

Xia, R. (2020, October 25). How the waters off Catalina became a DDT dumping ground. Retrieved March 24, 2021, from https://www.latimes.com/projects/la-coast-ddt-dumping-ground/

Glass is a natural product that is made from silica sand, soda ash, limestone and other materials. It is used most commonly in packaging (i.e. jars of food, drink bottles), in manufacturing tableware like drinking glasses, plates, and bowls, and in household building materials, like in windows (EPA, 2021).

In 2018, the total municipal solid waste generated by the United states was 292.4 million tons. Glass waste made up approximately 4.19% of that total, with 12,250,000 tons being wasted. This is almost double the amount generated in 1960, with that number totaling 6720000 tons of glass waste. Out of this waste, in 2018 only 3060000 tons were recycled. The US’s glass-recycling rate is only 33%, which is extremely poor in comparison to countries like Switzerland, Germany and other European countries who boast a 90% glass recycling rate (EPA, 2021).

Glass is a 100% recyclable material, with many energy and environmental benefits in recycling it. Recycling glass significantly saves energy. Recycled glass melts at lower temperature than its raw materials, and making glass from scratch uses 40% more energy than what is needed to recycle it. In recycling one glass bottle, enough energy can be produced that would power a normal lightbulb for 4 hours! Recycling glass also significantly reduces industrial pollution. Recycled glass reduces the emissions of air pollution by 20%, and water pollution by 40%.  In order to encourage glass recycling, some countries have even instituted a financial incentive when residents decided to recycle their glass instead of contributing to the waste accumulation (“Advantages and Disadvantages of Glass Recycling,” n.d.).

The glass recycling rate in the US is significantly lower than that of other countries. This shortfall is hypothesized to be due to various factors including the quality and availability of the recyclable glass available (called cutlet), and the economic factors behind making glass. Governmental policies and a lack of consumer education also perpetuate the low rates of glass-recycling (Jacoby, 2019). In order to increase the abysmally low glass recycling rates, action has been taken at the state and local level. Ten US states have passed “bottle bills” that require customers to pay deposits on bottled drinks. The hope in this is that customers will be more likely to recycle their old and used bottles in order to get their monetary deposit back. Other strategies to increasing glass recycling rates could be implementing more curbside recycling programs and drop-off centers in neighborhoods. This would eliminate barriers to recycling accessibility and having a presence and culture of recycling in neighborhoods would increase community awareness and education.

References:

National overview: Facts and figures on materials, wastes and recycling. (2021, January 28). Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-recycling/national-overview-facts-and-figures-materials

Jacoby, M. (2019, February 11). Why glass recycling in the US is broken. Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://cen.acs.org/materials/inorganic-chemistry/glass-recycling-US-broken/97/i6

Recycling glass – how it helps environment. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/teacher_resources/project_ideas/recycling_glass/

Compactor Management CompanyCompactor Management Company (former Northern California Compactors. (2020, July 31). Advantages and disadvantages of glass recycling. Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://www.norcalcompactors.net/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-glass-recycling/

Photochemical smog is a relevant environmental problem for 50% of people in the United States who experience health problems due to the air pollutant. Photochemical smog is a hazy mixture that forms when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight. Sunlight is an important ingredient in the formation of photochemical smog, leading the brown haze to be most evident in cities during the summer months due to the increased amount of sunlight. Nitrogen oxides are emitted from internal combustion engines (read: cars) and are spouted into the air as a pollutant. Then, in the presence of oxygen plus another O, forming ozone (O₃) in the air, photochemical smog is developed (Deziel, 2019).

This smog leads to a slew of negative health impacts. One outcome of the diminished air quality due to smog is the aggravation of asthma. With the presence of photochemical smog, asthmatics are at a higher risk of experiencing an acute asthma attack. The ozone in the atmosphere makes people more sensitive to allergens, with allergens being the most common triggers for an asthma attack. Another health consequence of photochemical smog is the irritation it causes on the respiratory system of normally healthy people. It leads to increased coughing, an irritated and scratchy throat, and a tight chest. The pollutants in the air can also damage the inner lining of the lung. Through this, the lung may be permanently damaged in an irreversible way that lowers one’s overall quality of life and has long-term health effects (EPA, 1999).

Photochemical smog is most prevalent in the United States in southern, densely populated cities. Since the 1970s, Los Angeles in California has been aware of and addressed their cities’ problems due to photochemical smog (Künzli et al., 2003). Specifically in Los Angeles, an integrated set of policies and prevention strategies are the most commonly used tactics to attempt to mitigate the effects of photochemical smog. New technologies that lead to a reduction of emissions in new vehicles, the use of clean fuels, and the development of zero-emission vehicles are all promising technologies. Tackling photochemical smog can also be accomplished via changing the transportation sector of a city, where building bicycle/ walking paths will promote those behaviors, and investing in the public transportation system will reduce individual car emissions. It is also important to address the citizens’ behaviors, and encourage them to walk, use public transportation, and utilize carpooling in order to reduce emissions on an individual basis (Künzli et al., 2003). These strategies have proved to be trending toward success, with the days spent experiencing excess smog declining slowly since 1976.

References:

Künzli, N., McConnell, R., Bates, D., Bastain, T., Hricko, A., Lurmann, F., . . . Peters, J. (2003). Breathless in Los Angeles: The Exhausting search for clean air. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1494-1499. doi:10.2105/ajph.93.9.1494

EPA. (1999). Smog—Who Does It Hurt? What You Need to Know About Ozone and Your Health. Retrieved 2021, from https://www.airnow.gov/sites/default/files/2018-03/smog.pdf

Deziel, C. (2019, March 02). How is photochemical Smog formed? Retrieved March 11, 2021, from https://sciencing.com/photochemical-smog-formed-6505511.html

Unknown. (1970, January 01). Air pollution in Los Angeles. Retrieved March 11, 2021, from http://geoprojectgrp7.blogspot.com/2015/03/air-pollution-in-los-angeles-location.html

Petroleum is a non-renewable energy resource that we in the US consume at copious rates. In 2009, the US used 6.58 billion barrels of oil per year, increasing to 6.89 barrels/ year in 2013, 7.28 barrels per year in 2017, and with the most recent data from 2019 reporting consumption of 7.50 barrels/ year. In 2019, this rate accounted for 21.4% of the global consumption of oil. This rate of consumption is unsustainable, yet petroleum oil has become the hallmark energy source responsible for US production (Lecture Notes, slide 6). This is the peak of the energy problem we are facing.

Where does all of this oil go? What is it used for? In 2019, 91% of the energy was used in the transportation sector of our infrastructure, followed by 34% being used in industries, 8% in residential spaces, and 9% used commercially. Logically, the best way to decrease the overall use of oil is to intervene where it is most used: within the transportation sector. Gasoline is the most dominant fuel used for transportation, with diesel and jet fuel following. The petroleum component of gasoline accounts for 53% of that total US transportation energy in the 2019 data.

Current practices that are attempting to reduce this consumption include the implementation of biofuels added to the petroleum fuels to increase fuel efficiency and lower vehicle emissions. Biofuels are a renewable energy source that has the highest potential to eventually replace petroleum gasoline usage, however, right now only 5% of the total US transportation energy is run by this more sustainable option (“Energy Information Administration,” n.d.).

Along with the further development of biofuel use, substantial reductions in petroleum energy consumption within the transportation sector can be achieved by improving the efficiency of vehicles. Increasing the average occupancy of vehicles (to limit the total number of needed vehicles), shifting to alternative vehicle technologies (ex: electric), or reducing the overall demand for vehicles. Accounting for all of these potential solutions, the one that should be most prioritized is making the switch in the US to low carbon transport systems. Certain countries, coined “Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development” (OECD) countries are already implementing this change. The concern is that the shift to low carbon systems will not happen swiftly enough to compensate for the rapidly declining oil energy supply (Miller & Sorrell, 2013). One shift that can take place is the implementation of plug-in hybrid vehicles. This is a popularly prevailing potential solution. This energy source takes virtually no oil to generate (only 5% of oil is used in the production of electricity), which significantly cuts back on oil usage, and the supplies for the construction of the car batteries are readily available. With the current understanding, switching from gasoline-powered vehicles to electric vehicles has higher initial costs, but overall lower fuel costs, external costs, and maintenance and repair costs (Delucchi et al., 2014).  Implementing this change quickly into the transportation sector may prove to slow the depletion of oil resources, as we continue to search for other sustainable forms of energy.

References: