Author: Jacqueline Roberts

Operant Conditioning

Shaping is a part of operant conditioning used to develop a behavior in an individual. “Shaping reinforces guide behavior closer towards a desired behavior,” also known as successive approximations (Wede). Shaping was first used by B.F. Skinner when he invented the Operant Chamber to study animal behavior. Skinner would use the chamber as a box to train the rats to press down on a lever in order to get food, water, or another reinforcer. He trained the rats by using successive approximations, he continued to reinforce until the final behavior was reached. If the rat was close to pressing down the lever it was rewarded. Rewards were given until the rat learned to press down on the lever. Shaping is common in everyday life, like learning how to do something. For example, I have used shaping to train my brother’s cat. Similar to a dog, I have shaped the cats behavior by first giving him a treat, repetitively telling him to give me his paw, and then once he does I will give him another treat. The treat served as a positive reinforcement, which worked to increase the cat’s behavior by presenting a positive stimulus. After many cycles of this, he eventually learned that when he wanted a treat that he would give me his paw first and then I would give him a treat. It is important to understand if the individual is not progressing, to use simpler steps of reinforcing. They will not learn the new behavior right away, so it will take time. I think shaping is a really interesting principle because essentially this is how both humans and animals learn. Our parents raised us with techniques involving shaping. How do you think we were able to walk, talk, be potty trained, as infants? I am sure we would have learned eventually by observing others, but the only way for it to be built into us was for our parents to shape it. 

 

Wede, J. (2019). Introduction to Psychology, lecture 15 notes [Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/2006917/files/104343631?module_item_id=27881395

 

Episodic memory

Declarative memory, also known as explicit memory, is a memory that consists of facts and events that can be consciously recalled. Explicit memory is a type of long-term memory, where we can remember a billion bits of information (Wede 2019). There are two kinds of explicit memory: semantic and episodic. Semantic memory consists of knowledge we have, like facts and math. I particularly want to focus on episodic memory, which represents personal experiences and specific events that we can recall. Explicit memory is processed in the hippocampus. When remembering an experience from our episodic memory, it often feels like we are mentally time traveling back to the past. It seems like we can recall every little detail that happened. This could often be because those vivid memories were associated with strong emotions, possibly even negative ones. For example, in class, we were asked what was the oldest memory we could remember and how old we were during that event. The majority of the class said 3-4 years. The earliest age of conscious memory is around 3½ years (Bauer 2002). Any age younger than 3 we can recall is typically a memory of a traumatic experience. One of the earliest memories I can recall is around the age of 3 when I was stuck in a store’s dressing room. I remember I got out of the individual dressing room but finding the exit out of the room felt like a maze. My mom said she would wait right outside for me but I could not find the exit. I broke down crying and just started screaming for my mom. Losing your mom as a child is probably one of the worst feelings. When I called for her, I eventually found my way out and got to her. However, I can recollect every detail like a photograph even though this memory happened to me so long ago. I especially was able to remember this so easily since I was so frightened in that moment.

The Sympathetic Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is part of the autonomic nervous system, which also consists of the parasympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system regulate different parts of the body by either inhibiting or stimulating them. The parasympathetic nervous system is referred to as “rest and digest”, which helps our body calm down. On the other hand, the sympathetic nervous system is known as “fight or flight”, which arouses our body. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to react in a stressful situation. It is often difficult to control your sympathetic nervous system consciously. When faced with danger, the body automatically goes through sympathetic nerve functions, like muscle contraction and heavy breathing. Human beings, as well as animals, will face at least one “fight or flight” situation in their lifetime. The one time I had a dangerous experience and my body went into “fight or flight” mode was when I was walking to the train station alone. I lived an hour away from my high school and my only mode of transportation was through bus or train. After school, I walked to the train station which was a good 15-20 minute walk. The walk was in a safe and quiet residential neighborhood in the suburbs right outside of Philadelphia, but you could experience crime anywhere. At the beginning of my walk, I could sense someone walking behind me. I assumed it was just another student from my school until I got a text from my friend who happened to drive by me. She told me to watch my back because there was a suspicious man who seemed like he was following me. I had a feeling something was wrong before because this person felt so close to me it was almost like they were breathing down my neck! When I sped up to walk faster, I could hear him start walking faster to catch up to me. Being in front of the man and only feet away, I was not able to turn around to see his appearance. My mind was only focused on getting away and the nerve cells told the muscles in my legs to move as fast as possible. I turned the corner, then he turned the corner. I thought maybe he was just going to the train station too but I had a bad feeling he was following me. I could feel my heart racing. My body automatically started to sweat and I felt the adrenaline pumping within my body. I made sure to cross the street when a car was coming, so by the time he crossed the street he would have to wait for the car to pass, increasing the distance between us. Then, I turned the corner again and had to go underneath a tunnel to get to the other side of the train tracks. I thought I finally lost him and once I got to the other side of the tracks I was praying that he didn’t come out from the tunnel. I then felt the biggest relief once the train showed up and I got on without the man who followed me. Although it was a scary experience for me, I was able to feel the different changes my body went through in the sympathetic nervous system and now know what actions to take in order to protect myself. In that situation, my body was preparing me for a possible threat thanks to my sympathetic nervous system.

Photo Reference: Tracy , B. L. (2017). Activate your Sympathetic nervous system. Retrieved from https://backyardbrains.com/experiments/Sympathetic_Nervous_System