Month: October 2023

It’s 2 o’clock in the morning and you’re sad. You feel as if the world is collapsing around you and your brain is acting strange. One thing leads to another and you soon end up recalling sad events from your past like the time your high school girlfriend left you. (She’s not coming back). Why does this happen? Well, this is called mood-congruent memory. It can loosely be defined as “A given mood tends to cue memories that are consistent with that mood”. This can feel scary at times. Are you upset that you failed a test? Well, prepare to be even more upset when your brain reminds you of how you didn’t perform well on the last 2. We’re all victims of this concept however it doesn’t always have to be sad. The other night I was hanging out with some friends. We had some laughs, maybe a few beers, and all around it was a great time.  My brain started recalling times from my past where I also felt happy. I thought of joyful memories of my dog (Rip Buddy), times where I was watching sports with my dad, and it was just all good. Hey, here’s another cool thing I can add. Remember how I mentioned I may have had a couple of beers that night? Well, let’s talk about state-dependent memory. When I was in that intoxicated state my brain threw memories at me that I couldn’t even remember when sober. I shared stories with my friends about very specific events over the years that happened when we were under the influence. I could only recall these events because, to simply put it, we are better at remembering things when we are in that mental state.

 Take a look at that graph. Strange, right? If you study for a test drunk you are better off taking it drunk than sober. 

To sort of conclude all of this I would like to take a look at mood-dependent memory. This one can be a bit confusing. This is just like state-dependent memory except strictly talking about emotions and mood. We are just better at remembering things when we are in the same mood. If you’re sad studying for that big exam, you better be sad when taking it. Maybe listen to sad music or something. Set the mood.

Proactive interference is a cognitive phenomenon that occurs when previously learned information interferes with an individual’s ability to learn and recall new information. In essence, it’s the idea that old memories or knowledge inhibit the formation and retrieval of new memories or knowledge. This interference arises because past information disrupts the proper encoding and consolidation of new information in the memory system.
A classic example of proactive interference is trying to learn a new language. If you’ve previously learned a language that’s structurally similar to the new one you’re trying to acquire, your existing knowledge may interfere with your ability to remember and use new vocabulary and grammar rules effectively. This is because your brain naturally attempts to apply the familiar language’s rules and vocabulary to the new one, which can result in errors and confusion.
Another everyday scenario where proactive interference is noticeable is when recalling someone’s new phone number or address after you’ve had their old contact information memorized. The old information interferes with your ability to remember and use the new data.
Proactive interference becomes more apparent when there is a significant similarity between the previously learned material and the new material. The stronger the connection between the old and new information, the greater the potential for interference.
However, the effects of proactive interference can be mitigated. Strategies like deliberate spacing of study sessions and using techniques such as mnemonic devices and mental organization can help reduce the interference, allowing the encoding and retrieval of new information to be more successful.
I have had a particularly hard time with proactive interference when learning languages throughout my life. Being as my father is an Italian immigrant, I grew up learning Italian in the household. However, in preschool I was also taught Spanish because of how prevalent the language is in America. This conflict continued into middle and high school, as Spanish was one of the few languages offered and Italian was not. However, over time I learned to separate the two languages and gain more control.

Proactive interference is defined as the effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer learned materials. As show in the diagram below, the name Julie was learned first and the name Judy was learned second. With proactive interference, even though you learned the second name more recently, the first name keeps interfering with the retrieval of the second name, causing confusion. With proactive interference, there is also retroactive interference. With retroactive interference, whatever you learn after affects what you learned before. For example, if you learned the name Julie first and Judy second, with retroactive interference, the second name would cause you trouble with remembering the first.

As someone who sometimes identifies myself as a professional procrastinator, the Spacing Effect was a piece of life-changing information. The Spacing Effect demonstrates that learning is more effective when repeated in spaced-out sessions, meaning that it’s more effective to train/practice/study an activity 1 hour per day 7 times a week than 1 time a week for 7 hours.

Many studies on memory have proven that effect, and it’s due to the fact that forgetting and learning are linked. Their relationship is similar to how muscles are built in our bodies. In order to create muscle, you must keep training the muscle you want to make stronger. The more times and the more intense you train a muscle, your body will reconstruct it to be strong enough for your activity, meaning it will get stronger as you train. That same process can be noticed in retrieving memories, as the more times you remember something. The more your brain realizes that information’s importance, meaning that it will be easier to recall it next time, in other words, the memory connection will be stronger.

This analogy exemplifies why distributed sessions tend to be more effective than mass practice, you will just train your brain to be more ready by practicing multiple times and also giving the time needed for processing the information, just like a muscle needs time for its recovery.

I found that information very useful to use, especially for an activity that you find difficult to get done. I’m passionate about music production, and because I started it not so long ago, I tend to compare my work with the work of people who have already been putting in the work for years. I’ve decided I want to get better at it, so making use of the Spacing Effect will definitely be helpful towards that goal. It makes me understand that things usually take time, and doing a little every day (constancy) will get you further than infrequent massed peaks of work (motivation).

Sources:

Vlach, H. A., & Sandhofer, C. M. (2012). Distributing Learning Over Time: The Spacing Effect in Children’s Acquisition and Generalization of Science Concepts. Child Development, 83(4), 1137-1144. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01781.

Retrieval interference is a phenomenon that suggests some memories can disrupt the recall of new or old memories. There are two types of retrieval interference: proactive and retroactive. Proactive interference occurs when information learned earlier disrupts the later learning of information. Older memories are more firmly encoded in long-term memory due to the individual having more rehearsal time. That makes those memories easier to recall than more recent memories. Research shows that one way to lessen proactive interference is to rehearse new information through recitation.

On the other hand, retroactive interference happens when information learned later interferes with information that was learned earlier. Sleep is a factor that helps avoid retroactive interference, resulting in better recall because nothing is disrupting the memory. Retroactive interference has been shown to interrupt learning. In a study, participants learned a set of German-Japanese word pairs and then a different set as an interference task. Regardless of the time between the learning and interference tasks, the interference task reduced learning by up to 20%, showing that the set learned later interfered with the memory of the German-Japanese word pairs learned earlier.

In an example of retroactive interference, the experimental group, who learned about mountains after a list of rivers, performed less well on recall tests. The later-learned list of mountains confused their recall of the earlier-learned list of rivers, unlike the control group, which experienced no interference from an unrelated task. In proactive interference, the experimental group experienced the effects of proactive interference because the earlier-learned list of rivers disrupted their memory of the later-learned list of mountains. Their recall performance on the mountain list was lower than that of the control group.

As a competitive dancer, I continuously learn new choreography and dance moves on a daily basis. I have about 10 routines a season that I have to memorize, which tends to get difficult as I learn more choreography. At the start of the dance season, I quickly picked up new combinations without interference from other routines because I had a break during summer and did not learn anything dance-related. However, as the season continues and I learn more routines, I notice instances where I unintentionally do dance moves from routines learned months earlier. This became specifically noticeable when, for example, an arm movement called a windmill, learned in October for a Halloween dance, found its way into a routine learned in December. The step was the same in both dances, but the arms were different. However, I could never remember the arms in the later-learned step because the arms from the step we learned in October interfered with it. Understanding the phenomenon of proactive interference helped me realize that the earlier-learned arm movement was interfering with my recall of the later-learned movement.

Sources:

https://www.simplypsychology.org/proactive-and-retroactive-interference.html

https://study.com/academy/lesson/proactive-interference-definition-examples-quiz.html

https://www.thoughtco.com/proactive-and-retroactive-interference-definition-and-examples-4797969

I’ve cherished the world of theater since I first stepped onto the stage in 8th grade, relishing the opportunity to dive into a plethora of characters and indulge in the delightful act of make-believe alongside fellow thespians. One of the most unforgettable roles I’ve had the pleasure of embodying was none other than the jovial Smee in the production of “Peter Pan.” I can connect memorizing these lines with the information processing model, a framework that dissects the realm of memory into three segments: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Playing Smee, I found my focus distinctly centered on short-term and long-term memory, as they are the keystones to my success in delivering my lines on time and the way I rehearsed them.  

Imagine short-term memory as a brief storage room for information, a place where my lines, cues, and choreography are temporarily safeguarded. This facet plays a vital role in my theatrical endeavors, offering quick access to components as I engage with my fellow thespians under the spotlight. Retrieval, a process of shuttling information from the enduring chambers of long-term memory into the swift confines of short-term memory, is instrumental in ensuring that my lines are ready when the performance begins. Retrieval cues are my allies in this endeavor, akin to little memory prompts that aid in my recollection. For instance, during rehearsals, I could forge associations between my lines and the specific movements I execute on the pirate ship’s stairs in each scene. This clever stratagem not only helps me in retrieving my lines but also aligns the conditions of memorization with those of actual performance, creating a profound context effect and strengthening the bonds between my character, lines, and the very stage upon which I perform. 

This intricate interplay between short-term and long-term memory, as I prepare to step into the shoes of Smee, serves as a reminder of the nature of human memory. Memorizing lines, cues, and the fluid choreography of a theatrical production is like piecing together a puzzle. With my short-term memory functioning as a bridge to access the troves of information stored in my long-term memory, I diligently employ retrieval cues and context effects to ensure seamless integration of my character, lines, and the stage. As the curtains rise, revealing the enchanting world of “Peter Pan,” I take to the stage with an unwavering sense of assurance, secure in the knowledge that my memory has been meticulously primed for the spotlight.

“Information Processing Theory Model.” LearnUpon. https://www.learnupon.com/wp-content/uploads/Information-Processing-Theory-Model.png Accessed 22 October 2023.

The concept that I chose to talk about is the Operant Conditioning experiment. This theory is focused on the concept of training someone or something to modify behavior with punishments and rewards. American psychologist, Burrhus Frederuc Skinner, carried out the experiment with what’s known as the “Skinner Box”. Skinner put lab rats in a box with two colored lights and a lever. This experiment solely focused on positive/negative reinforcement and punishment. The lab was set up with two different colored lights (red and green), a loudspeaker, and a lever that would do different things depending on what color the light was. Positive reinforcement is something pleasant being rewarded with a certain behavior. An example of this would be the rats hitting the lever as the green light is being displayed. Then, the food pellets would be released. Nextly, negative reinforcement is removing something negative when bad behavior is corrected. For example, loud music would sound in the box and the rat had to press the lever in order to turn it off. Lastly, punishment is applying something aversive after a specific behavior is demonstrated. An example of this would be the rats pressing the lever as the red light was on resulting in the rats experiencing a mild shock. In the end, the rats quickly understood the concept of the lights and learned to avoid the lever when the red light was on. 

Not only can operant conditioning be used on animals, but parents use this method to teach their children manners. During the summer of 2020, I took on a job of being a nanny. She was a five year old girl, named Piper, who was struggling with developing good manners and obsessed with Nutella, a chocolate hazelnut spread. Before taking on the job, Piper’s mom and I had a conversation about Piper’s manners and we came up with a way of trying to teach her. Every time I asked Piper to do something, whether it was her mom or I asking, she would get a spoonful of nutella if she did the task without fighting back about it. Not only did she stop talking back to her family, but before she would act on things, she would think deeply about what she was going to say/do before doing them. As the summer came to an end and Piper didn’t need a nanny, her actions and manners had improved immensely from when I met her. Giving Piper a spoonful of nutella was asserting positive reinforcement into her daily routine. The operant conditioning theory is a great way to teach children, animals, and even some adults the right and wrong way to handle things. 

The psychology concept I’ve chosen to discuss today is the phenomenon of implanting memories, which leads to falsified memories. The concept of implanting memories, otherwise known as “suggestibility” in the textbook, is the idea that a person could create new memories based on things told to them, even if those memories never happened or aspects of them are false. Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus addressed this concept in her experiment where she used certain language to describe a car crash and how the wording would impact the eyewitnesses memory of the crash (saying that cars “smashed” instead of “hit” for example). Another experiment done to test this concept was the “False memories of childhood experiences” study done by Ira Hyman and James Billings in the 90s. This experiment consisted of the researchers contacting the participants parents to receive four childhood memories of the participant, and confirmation that one event did not happen to the participant, so they would have 5 memories in total; 4 real, 1 fake. They then asked the participants if they remembered all 5 memories and to describe them. 2 days later, the participants would be asked about the memories again. The goal of this experiment was to measure how many people would claim they had a childhood memory of something, when the parents had said that it didn’t happen, and how that measurement would be impacted by time passing. It was found that, during the first interview, only around 2%/3% of participants claimed they remembered the false memory. However, around 30% of participants claimed they remembered the false memory during the second interview, only two days later. This experiment shows that, if you even suggest something happened to people, especially when grouped with other events that actually happened, there is a high possibility that the individual will be able to create a false memory of the event and then remember it as something that actually happened to them. Very fascinating!

I chose this concept because I often wonder how many of my memories are truly real, or how many of them contain false information. It was said in class that it’s more likely for us to remember traumatic events due to the emotional aspects of the event, and one of my earliest memories would be something that could be considered traumatic. My parents have told me the story so many times, so I’m not sure if my memories are real or based on what they’ve told me! When I was around 3 or 4, the side door to my house slammed on my hand and cut the tip of my pinkie finger off. I have very vivid memories of my mom carrying me into the house, and me sitting in the living room with my McDonalds cookie since we had just come home from there, my mom on the phone with my grandma asking her to come watch my siblings, and even me in the ambulance on the way to the hospital. I can remember sitting in the hospital, but that’s around where my memory of the event ends (and who knows if that memory is even from that specific hospital trip). My mom has told me that I didn’t cry at all, and she was the one freaking out way more, so was this even an event that was highly emotional or traumatic for me? After learning more about implanted memories, I can’t help but wonder if I have just heard the story so many times, with my mom and my grandma providing different details on various occasions, that I can picture realistic scenes of the event in my head and that those pictures have been converted into being memories. So interesting, and it’s likely that some aspects of it are real, but I guess I’ll never know!

Operant Conditioning 

The course concept that I chose is Operant Conditioning. This term is defined as a method of learning that uses reward and punishment to modify behavior. B.F. Skinner is referred to as the father of operant conditioning, and discovered it during his famous experiment called “Skinner Box”. Skinner placed a rat in a box with a lever that when pushed provided food. After the rat accidentally hit the lever enough times, it ultimately learned and developed the behavior that hitting the lever resulted in receiving food. Operant conditioning can also be used with small children. Parents often use something positive in a child’s life like candy to be a reward if the child does something good like use the bathroom on their own. The positive reinforcement of candy will eventually teach the child to use the bathroom independently.

When I was in fourth grade my family decided to get a new addition to the family and purchase a golden doodle puppy. For everyone in my family, this was the first time any of us would have a dog. After getting 5-month-old “Philly” we were all in for a quick awakening of how much patience and training goes into the development of a well-trained dog. If there is one thing Philly loves its food. We decided to use treats to consistently praise him for doing good behaviors like barking to go out and use the bathroom, or sleeping on his bed vs our leather couch. Over time he learned that doing good things resulted in him getting a tasty milk bone. 

As Philly got older (around 1-2) we stopped giving him treats as frequently for good behavior, and by 3 treats were completely done. Over time, doing good things like using the bathroom outside and sleeping on his bed became normal for him. Philly is now 12 years old and I am happy to say that he has been a great-trained dog all this time, except for the occasional sock, shoe, and raw pork tenderloin that he may have eaten in his life.