Although it can be best appreciated alone, caviar is often added onto dishes to command a higher price. Source 1

Whether you have seen it in movies or have had the privilege to taste it for yourself, caviar is a symbol of high society. Small salted pearls, with the unmistakable musk of the ocean, have allowed people to spend exuberant amounts of money for just small spoonfuls. Today, caviar is produced and shipped throughout the world.  So, what makes caviar so special?

A Not So Fishy History

If you didn’t know, caviar is the salted and aged eggs, or roe, of the sturgeon fish, a family of about 28 species throughout the world. Some species, like the Beluga sturgeon, can live to be more than 100 years old, and the largest ever captured weighed an impressive 3000 pounds and was more than 20 feet long; she produced more than 900 pounds of caviar.

Caviar has a long history, with its first documentation coming from Aristotle in the 4th century B.C. Even 2400 years ago, caviar was reserved for only the most lavish of events. In the middle ages, caviar was revered by the kings of Britain, when sturgeon was dubbed the “Royal Fish”. It would be the Persians who created the delicacy that we know today. Taking influence from ancient Chinese tradition, the Persians were the first to begin salting the roe and aging it before consumption. Russian tsars would continue to popularize the dish serving it at many of their royal feasts throughout their reign over Russia.

Domestically produced caviar would not come until the 1800s when fishermen first began catching sturgeon and harvesting the roe. Believe it or not, caviar was not a delicacy here in the U.S. It was actually served for under $1 a pound, compared to anywhere from $300 to more than $1000 today. This cheap caviar was often served in bars to increase beer purchases. It would not be until the 1870s that a German immigrant, Henry Schacht, would begin exporting US-produced caviar. It was estimated that at some periods during the 1900’s more than 90% of all caviar consumed in Europe was imported from the US.

Making Luxury

Much of the differentiation in caviar comes from where the species and where it was harvested from. In Europe, much of the caviar produced has historically come from the Caspian Sea where Ossetra sturgeon are most common. In the US, the white or Atlantic Sturgeons are harvested for their eggs.

Although most wild sturgeons today are much smaller, some given the luxury of time, grew to massive sizes. Source 2

Surprisingly, making caviar is quite a simple process. Most sturgeon are at least 5 years old when they are caught for harvesting. Identifying that the female has viable unfertilized eggs, the fish is brought to the processing facility. Arriving at the facility, the fish are humanely euthanized and the egg membranes are removed. The eggs are separated from the membranes and rinsed multiple times. Each fish can taste slightly different; therefore, the eggs are kept separate and are individually salted per the desired recipe. After aging for more than 3 months, the large canisters are opened and then graded based on taste, color, texture, and size. At this point, the finished caviar is placed into fresh tins, sealed, and placed under refrigeration to be consumed within 3 weeks. I felt it was only fair to keep production pictures out of this section, so if you are interested in the production of caviar, you can watch this video here.

Caviars Problem

The inherent issue with caviar is at the root of its production. Throughout the world, multiple species of sturgeons have been pushed to the edge of extinction. Caviar not only removes females that could produce more than 10000 eggs for a season but permanently removes them from the ecosystem. Thus, since sturgeon harvesting began to rise in the 1920s, the population has continually decreased.

A picture of the indoor facilities at Atlantic Caviar & Sturgeon in North Carolina. Source 3

One of the major changes processors are making is utilizing farmed sturgeon. Throughout America and Europe, farms have begun breeding and rearing a wide variety of sturgeon species. These farms help to alleviate some of the massive pressure and demand that the caviar industry has maintained on the wild population for more than 50 years.  As a bonus, unlike farm-raised fish like salmon, which is often of lower quality, farm-raised sturgeon caviar is of a more uniform quality and more desirable compared to its wild counterpart. Some harvesters have even begun sedating instead of killing the sturgeon. At this point, the eggs are squeezed out of the fish, not cut out. The fish wakes up unharmed and can be harvested for years to come.

Conclusion

I am definitely not an authority on caviar or the world of luxury food. Personally, I feel food should be accessible to everyone. There are too many hungry people in the world for a select few to pay thousands of dollars for some fish eggs and some funky fungus, but that is a discussion for another day. No less, I think caviar will continue to paint the picture of luxury for those who are willing to pay top dollar. As one of the oldest foods I have had the privilege to discuss in this blog, I know it will continue to withstand the test of time.

Everyone loves cheese.  Whether it’s stinky or mild.  Holey or solid.  White or yellow.  Much of America, and the world, have an affection for cheese.  One world-renowned cheese, Parmigiano Reggiano from the region of Emilia-Romagna in Italy, is often dubbed the “king of cheese”.  Much different from the white powdery parmesan cheese you buy in most US grocery stores, Parmigiano is the perfect combination of savory and sweet flavors that have been perfected over the centuries.  So, what makes the king of cheese worthy of such a title?

A Long Lineage

An ancient wheel of cheese discovered in Egyptian ruins in 2018. Source 1

The history of cheese is quite a long story to tell.  It is believed that some of the earliest cheeses were made more than 3200 years ago in Egypt, where it likely resembled modern feta cheese with a salty, crumbly texture.  As for Parmigiano, it was first developed during the Middle Ages(circa. 1250) by Benedictine and Cistercian monks in Emilia-Romagna who were seeking a way to utilize the abundant milk that was being produced.  After developing the process of curdling that we will discuss later, the early wheels of cheese were stored in a local salt mine.  In this mine, the cheese aged to develop its flavor, but also wbegan to absorb salt from chamber’s floors and walls.  

It wasn’t until 1612 that the Duke of Parma first sought to protect the cheese of his region.  Although Parmigiano Reggiano was special, there were still other cheeses very similar to it being produced in the surrounding areas.  In a deed, the duke declared that only cheese from the milk of Parma cows and produced in Parma could be considered true Parmigiano Reggiano or “of Parma (and Reggio)”.  This is considered to be one of the earliest designations of origin documented.

Making Royalty

A depiction of monks making cheese. Source 2

Much of the current process used to make Parmigiano has not changed since early monk’s developed it 800 years ago.  All of the milk the cheese producers need is locally sourced from pasture-fed cows.  The milk from these cows actually contains unique bacteria that are found nowhere else in the world that help give the cheese its unique characteristics.  

First, the milk is allowed to separate; the fat is used to make butter and the skim milk moves on.  Combined with the previous night’s skim milk, rennet, and whey, the milk is warmed and allowed to coagulate.  The curds are broken up by a large whisk called a “spino” and then heated to 131℉.  This heating combines the curds into a solid mass and kills off any unwanted bacteria while leaving behind the good bacteria from the grass.  Each batch can use upwards of 1100 liters or 300 gallons of milk to produce just two wheels of cheese.  

Each wheel of cheese gets a number of identifiers that proves it is genuine Parmigiano Reggiano. Source 3

At this time, each of the 100-pound wheels is placed into perforated forms to allow excess whey to be removed.  After draining, the wheyless cheese is removed and wrapped in a stencil to create the iconic dotted rind inscription in addition to burning in product information including the date, region, and producer.  Each wheel also receives an alphanumeric(QR code) that can be scanned at any time to track the wheel in its aging process. The now-branded wheels are left to float in a saltwater brine for upwards of 25 days.  It is during this time that the cheese begins to develop its iconic salty characteristics.  From brining, the cheese is sent to climate-controlled chambers to begin aging.  Throughout the process, the wheels are checked for quality and development.  Legal Parmigiano Reggiano must be aged for at least one year, however, the best(and most expensive) wheels are aged for upwards of three years.

Parmesan or parmesan

Now you don’t have to be Italian to realize that the cheese that we commonly associate with parmesan, the white snow we sprinkle on our pasta, is probably not true Parmigiano Reggiano.  You would be surprised to know that most of the “parmesan” in the United States is not true parmesan at all(and no, it is not just because of the cellulose).

Parmigiano Reggiano, or Parmesan in English, is a certified Protected Designation of Origin product in the EU.  PDOs are strict regulations and standards that must be met to receive the product title.  In the case of Pramigiano, much of what I listed above actually are these stipulations.  Being produced in Parma, Reggio Emilia, or Modena, cows being grass-fed, and aging for at least one year are just some of the many boxes that need to be checked before a wheel is certified.    

So what about the American snow cheese? Given we are not in the European Union, it is much more difficult to execute the certifications that pertain to PDOs.  Much of what we consume on a daily basis is considered “domestic parmesan”, or parmesan produced in the US.  Although, as you will recall, even the translation of Parmesan itself falls under PDO protection, and that is where the true trouble begins.  As it was during the 1600s, there is still great debate on branding cheeses as Parmesan or parmesan.  Notably, in recent years, Kraft, the producer of those green bottles of “Parmesan Cheese” failed in trademarking the iconic product in much of the world due to the power behind the true Parmesan name in the EU-the Consortium of Parmigiano Reggiano Cheese.

Aging is often a major factor in determining price. Even domestic aged parmesan can be very close in price to PDO certified imported Parmesan. Source 4

The Legacy

Cheese will always hold a special place in the hearts of people throughout the world, even those who are lactose intolerant like me.  It is for that reason, plus the immense popularity of Italian food, that will keep Parmesan at the forefront of culinary controversy.  The Parmigiano Reggiano market is worth 2.5 billion dollar, and the counterfeit market is estimated to be worth just as much.  Although the product still faces branding troubles in the EU, it is on individual governments to respect the PDO that comes with true Parmesan cheese.  PDOs not only represent quality and standards, but they represent heritage and history, which are being disrespected in every instance in which they are ignored.  

Consumed by the pharaohs more than 2000 years ago.  Traded for land by Louis XVI in the 18 century.  Global controversy today.  Foie gras has been a staple of French cuisine and culture that has spread throughout the world.  When you learn its story, you may or may not question the delicacy with such an elegant name.  So, what makes foie gras production and consumption so controversial?  

Establishing a Legacy

Starting with some anatomy, we will look at the goose.  Like all migratory birds, the goose must sustain itself for its expansive journey before winter arrives.  Being one of the largest migratory birds means they need to really pack on the pounds for the journey.  As the geese eat, their bodies build fat stores that become more than 60 percent of their body weight.  A great concentration of this fat is in their liver. 

An Egyptian depiction of early geese force-feedings.  The process has not changed much from the time of ancient Egypt to modern day.  Source 1

Realizing that these birds are more succulent during the beginning of the migration, the Egyptians enjoyed the geese when they were around.  However, when they realized that nicer geese all year long were possible, they were hooked.  In a process now referred to as gavaging, the ancient Egyptians force-fed the geese and limited their exercise.  They were left with fatter geese all year long and the piece de resistance, the liver. 

From the Nile, the practice of force-feeding geese, amongst other animals, was passed to the Greeks and Romans, where it was a delicacy for only the richest of the times.  The tradition was also adopted adamantly by the Jewish who utilized the fat for cooking due to religious restrictions on other meats.  Continuing to spread, the French would begin to prepare the “fatty liver”, or foie gras, for the kings of the 18th century, including Louis XVI who declared it the “dish of kings”.  

A Historical Problem

On foie gras farms geese receive food directly from a tube.  This feed is calorically dense and fattens the birds up rapidly.  Source 2

Today, France holds strong as the largest producer of foie gras.  However, globally, the production has ebbed and flowed predominantly due to the work of animal activists.  If you stop to think about it, force-feeding anything, whether it’s a baby eating a pea or a dog taking medicine, is not an easy feat.  On foie gras farms, the geese are put into air-conditioned pens to replicate fall weather and then a long tube down their throat individually provides a slurry of corn and soy to fill their stomachs 3 times per day.  By the end of the 3-week feeding regimen, a liver that was once 2 ounces can weigh more than 2 pounds.  Although not much different than in nature, the geeses’ natural instincts do not have control, the farmers do. 

Therefore, for obvious reasons, since as early as the 11th century, there have been concerns over foie gras production.  There are only a handful of farms in the United States that produce the delicacy, predominantly for affluent markets like New York City.  These are the areas hit the hardest by protesters who call for foie gras production and consumption to be banned.  Some states and a handful of countries have banned production; however, consumption is largely unregulated.  

A Legacy Leading Change

Force-feeding geese sounds like something we have to think about for a minute.  However, there are still other ways to make foie gras.  Farmers like Eduardo Sousa produce what he legally must be called natural foie gras in Spain.  For more than 60 years, Sousa’s family has only processed foie gras with the seasons, following the bird’s typical gorging schedule.  In addition to being free range, the geese’s’ diet is supplemented with, not forcefully given, flavor and color-enhancing feed like figs, acorns, and corn.  

Farms like Sousa’s represent what the foie gras industry could be.  Sousa shared in an interview that products like foie gras should remain only for the most special events in a person’s life, not the day-to-day meals of the uber-rich.  Until that mindset changes, there will continue to be a standoff between industry, which only is efficiently supplying demand, and activism, which only wants what is best for an animal.  

Whether you like it iced or hot, sweet or unsweetened, at the beach or by the fireside, tea is consumed in some form on every continent. Comprised of water steeped with some type of vegetation, the ‘tea’ that we know has been around for longer than you could imagine. From ancient tradition to your cup at Dunkin’, how has tea solidified itself into global culture and history?

Where It All Starts

A depiction of the many routes that tea, also referred to as “cha”, has moved around the Eastern Hemisphere throughout history. Source 1

Tea is deeply rooted in east Asian history. According to ancient texts, tea was first used as a medicinal drink in China as far back as 2700 BCE, that’s more than 5000 years ago! These teas included anything from dried flowers and fruits, roots, leaves, seeds, and even minerals. Teas would be used to treat ailments ranging from sore throats and everyday cuts to healing broken bones. To this day much of western medicine utilizes medicinal teas for natural healing. 

By the year 300, tea was both an everyday drink and a ceremonial centerpiece throughout China. There was such a demand, as one story goes, 800 seeds from Camellia sinensis, the only “tea” producing shrub, had to be sent to Japan to produce even more leaves. More than 1000 years later varieties of Camellia sinensis were found growing lush in the hills of India. The popularity saw unmatched growth as the shrubs were cultivated on larger scales in the rich soil and humid environments of India and Southeast Asia.  

Europe’s Tea-volution

One of the countries most commonly associated with tea is England and the traditions of high tea and elevenses. Although the rules for each could get a blog in themselves, how these two events are synonymous with English culture are just as interesting. Just as tea had spread throughout Asia, the herbal brews continued to work their way west as the social elites enjoyed the beverage. As prices dropped, the morning, noon, and night drink became economically available to all classes, not just those who could pay.  

A picture of the Assam region of India where new native Camellia sinensis was discovered. Source 2

Tea had become a hot ticket item for import by the 1600s. Countries like the Dutch East India Company and the more well-known British East India Company would go on to bring thousands of pounds of tea into the European market. As imperialism ran rampant across the globe, tea was a high priority. Countless estates were established throughout India that farmed thousands of acres of tea with cheap or forced labor.

From Leaf to Bag

The process of preparing the tea leaves, regardless of location, has been refined over hundreds of years. Believe it or not, black, white, green, and Oolong tea all start with the same leaves. Workers harvest only the new growth tips from the shrubs after the monsoon season either by hand or via machine. Then, the leaves are left to dry until they reach 60-70 percent moisture, at which point they move to the next step.  

The vast distinction of teas that can all be produced from the same leaves. Source 3

Depending on the processing, leaves are either cut, torn and curled in the CTC method or left whole for rolling in the orthodox method. The leaves are then placed out for oxidation to occur. Enzymes in the leaves begin to develop the distinct colors and flavors associated with each tea. After oxidizing from anywhere from 30 minutes to 2 hours, the leaves are removed and heat dried to 3 percent moisture. In less than 24 hours, the tea is ready for a cup of hot water.

Where We Stand Today

There is little fear of losing the global sensation of tea. Although grown on a mass scale in only a handful of countries, tea cultivation is relatively stable. With limited pesticides and little need for supplemental water, tea plants grow to full size and can continue to produce for years to come. However, as the price of tea has not gone up since the 1950s, economic sustainability has come to the forefront of the industry. In the current conditions, with such little profits, workers can not be paid livable wages and are left to impoverish conditions and little pay for the arduous job.  

As global tea consumption continues to grow each year, the system, although developed thousands of years ago, still has its flaws. No less, companies will only begin to address such large issues when the consumer begins to make demands. Therefore, is an extra 50 cents or $1 at the grocery store really worth someone living in poverty?

When you think of the fall, it is hard to imagine everything without it. Apple cider donuts would be missing just one thing. Your favorite candles would just smell like brown sugar, who wants that? Your pumpkin spice latte, just boring cream on top. If you realize it or not, cinnamon has invaded our everyday life and, as it has for decades, makes its rounds as the holidays approach. So, what made cinnamon become so popular?

Cinnamon Before America 

Cinnamon is regarded as one of the most popular spices in America. Unsurprisingly, cinnamon has been used throughout the world for thousands of years. Commonly, these uses were more medicinal or spiritual. Ancient Egyptians used cinnamon while embalming. Ancient Romans burned the dry bark in religious ceremonies and it was often more valuable than gold. The Chinese considered it to be one of the 50 essential medicinal herbs.  

A depiction of a Middle Age spice merchant or “handler”. Source 1

It was not until the Middle Ages that cinnamon would first be utilized as a culinary spice. However, it was often still utilized for its other benefits which included stimulating the appetite and helping with a sore throat. It was no surprise as time went on control of the cinnamon plantations became critical. While imperialism swept across the world, powerful peoples like the Portuguese and the Dutch fought over Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, which was the prominent producing region at the time. Explorers were even sent out to find better paths and more sources for the spice, you might recall this is why Columbus sailed west and landed in the Americas.  

The Cinnamon of Today

Ceylon is often layered while Cassia has the iconic curled structure. Source 2

The ground cinnamon or stick cinnamon you purchase from the grocery store is actually the dried bark of one of a few trees, Cinnamomum verum also known as “true” cinnamon or Ceylon cinnamon, or, more often than not, Cinnamomum cassia. Although coming from different trees, each closely resembles the other. To the untrained palette, it would be hard to even tell any true difference. 

Like in ancient times, the popularity of cinnamon has not faltered. Today, it is in almost everything. Air fresheners, every baked good from September to November, spirits, candles, and thousands of other products. No less, many of its historical health praises are still recognized today. Cinnamon is utilized in teas and supplements to help reduce swelling and inflammation, soothe sore throats, and balance blood sugar(which you’re going to need after a few too many deserts at Thanksgiving).  

Cinnamon in Global Production

Only the outermost layer of bark is harvested from Cinnamomum trees.  It can take as little as 3 years to reharvest a tree.  Source 3

The spice industry is riddled with questions about sustainability and ethicality. Unlike most spices, cinnamon is a little different. Cinnamon is inherently sustainable. The entire tree is not removed from the ground to harvest the bark. Only mature branches are harvested, and often the bark is removed directly from the tree without cutting. The trees do not need any chemicals to grow and are often grown interplanted in forests. Plus, the trees replenish themselves relatively quickly(as fast as one would think it would take to rebuild an entire arm).   

As for ethicality, cinnamon does fall short. Although nowhere near as bad as products like açaí, which you can read about in “Modern Ideals Meets Ancient Ways”, cinnamon still has room for growth. Sourcing fair-trade cinnamon helps to ensure that farmers are receiving fair prices for their goods and making a livable income. As consumers, it is only our responsibility to protect the goods we purchase; cinnamon is not going away anytime soon and who knows what we might see it added to next. 

On top of spaghetti, all covered with cheese. I lost my poor meatball when somebody sneezed. 

Whether you remember learning this nursery rhyme or you remember telling it to a small child, children have grown up knowing a plate of spaghetti and meatballs. Like many of our favorite Italian dishes, or should I say, Italian-American dishes, a plate of spaghetti and meatballs is not something that is typically found at the “true” Italian dinner table on a Tuesday night. Yet, Italian-American culture revolves around small noodles boiled in water just as it does in Italy. So, what brought forth the inherent symbioses between Italian culture and pasta?

Pasta Before Italy

If you look throughout the world, you will find pasta-like products everywhere. The Polish have pierogies. The Chinese have chow mein. The Japanese have ramen. The Chinese have lo mein. The Vietnamese have pho. The Chinese have potstickers. Are you starting to catch my drift?

Although debated, China is thought to have been the first to develope pasta-like products. Given the diversity of noodle dishes throughout many Asian cultures the popularity of noodles quickly spread throughout Asia.  This spread was met with the growing production of pasta in Italy. Travelers like Marco Polo are even documented as having Asian noodle dishes and bringing these noodles around the world in the 13th century.  

Wether pressed, rolled, or extruded, with the same dough, you can make more than 100 types of pasta. Source 1

The early pasta very closely resembled the pasta of today. However, these pastas were made from a starch slightly different to the hard, glutenous durum flour utilized in most commercial pasta today. When kneaded with water, the tough dough was rolled out and boiled. It was the Italians who would perfect the pasta-making process. Using bronze extruders to force pasta through molds, Italy grew to be defined by its many pasta shapes and even more pasta recipes.  

What Made Pasta Special in Italy

We can all imagine the scene, whether you are Italian or you have watched literally any show with an Italian character, the iconic Sunday dinner. You would then of course know that the Sunday dinner would not be complete without pasta. In both America and Italy, pasta is arguably the center of the family unit and culture. Often covered in a rich sauce and perfectly al dente, recommend a change, and you may be uninvited by your own family. 

Italians consume double the average amount of pasta compared to the second nearest consumer, Greece. Source 2

Like most other aspects of pasta, what made it so appealing historically is what enabled its widespread acceptance and continuation to this day. Pasta is cheap. When poverty swept across Italy, pasta was cheap and filling and provided for large families with very little money. Now, even though the times are better for most, pasta maintains its ability to feed a crowd of hungry people for pennies on the dollar(which is always a top priority).  

Pasta For Ages to Come 

Unlike many of the other items I have covered throughout this blog, I don’t see pasta leaving anytime soon. Whether it is a bowl of pastina when you are sick, or a plate piled high with rigatoni or fettuccine, pasta is accepted amongst Italians and many other cultures alike. Pasta has survived through the ages feeding families and bringing them together. As millions of Italians brought their pasta eating traditions into the New World they evolved into American culture.  Now, pasta continues to be enjoyed by Italians and non-Italians alike. My only hope is that unlike some person somewhere in history, your meatball does not end up being a projectile due to a sneeze(which I think defies every law of physics, but that is just me).

Last week in Why History Wasn’t Salty About Salt, I talked about the history of salt and how it not only allowed for the evolution of society but has continued to be worth its weight in gold until this day. In the modern world, salt is synonymous with table salt, that being the compound NaCl or sodium chloride. Now although there are many types of salts, like Natron, we only mainly consume one type, that being table salt. But what supplies the world’s never-ending need for sodium chloride?

From Mine to Table

A view of the Ojibway Salt Mine in Windsor, Ontario, more than 950 feet bellow the surface of the Earth. Source 1

There are two main sources of table salt, one being the ocean and one being the Earth. Salt that is mined from the Earth is considered rock salt, yes sometimes it is even used on the roads in the winter. The salt that is mined from the Earth was often first deposited millions of years ago when there were still dinosaurs roaming. The underground salt deposits are dried-up oceans that have crystalized over time. However, you would be surprised just how little rock salt is actually consumed.

The greatest amount of mined salt goes to being used on the roads. The table salt that we consume is very highly regulated and only the purest, least contaminated NaCl actually makes it to our pastas and meats. The contaminants within salts can vary widely, however they are often other elements like potassium, iodine, calcium, and iron that also can bind with chlorine(Cl) and make other types of salts. This is actually why Himalayan pink salt is actually pink. There is such a concentration of these trace elements, although still small in comparison to the amount of sodium(Na) that the crystals appear to have a pinkish huge to them.

When it comes to processing, the methods are quite rudimentary. When an area is identified for harvesting, bores are sent into the walls of the salt caves. Dynamite is then placed in and detonated, making what was once a solid wall into a pile of salty rubble. It is trucked out of the mine, graded, pulverized as needed, and sent to its final destination like municipal yards or your local grocery store.  

Salt and the Motion of the Ocean

When it comes to harvesting sea salt, the process is a little different than mining rock salt. Retrieving salt from water, whether springs or the oceans, is an ancient process that has undergone little change, besides size and industrialization, over thousands of years.  Sea salt, believe it or not, is produced through processing water from the ocean, which contains one of the most abundant sources of NaCl on Earth. When you leave the ocean and you have a powdery layer on your skin, you just harvested your own salt. Harvesting sea salt hinges on evaporation or the conversion of a liquid into a gas. In this process, the solid in the liquid remains. In the case of seawater, these solids are salts.  The process is so simple, you can even do it at home with a few YouTube videos!

The unique pyramidal shape of Maldon salt is much different than typical table salt that is the shape of a cube. Figure 2

Sea salt has many characteristics that differentiate it from your typical table salt, even though it is the same compound, NaCl. Ocean water contains a massive variety of minerals and compounds. While harvesting salt, many of these compounds remain after evaporation and crystalize with the NaCl. The minerals and compounds vary greatly depending on where the water is harvested from. Thus each sea salt has a unique flavor profile(which takes a well-trained palate to identify).

Those who like to cook or have seen a couple Salt Bae videos know that sea salt in particular comes in a variety of sizes, or flake sizes. This is actually directly related to how much movement the salt undergoes in processing. Move the salt a lot while evaporating, you will have small flakes. Move the salt very little, and you will have larger crystals. Some salts, like the English Maldon salt, develop rare and renowned pyramid shapes. This is in relation to the rate and the depth at which the water is evaporated from the salt.

Salt and the Future

These are stills one of the many design that utilize solar evaporation to separate salts from water. Source 3

Salt in my opinion is actually one of the most readily sustainable natural resources. Although they can cause severe damage to the environment, as a consumable, NaCl is not a drastic worry. However, the processing is where there are some issues, especially with sea salt. 

Sea salt is most sustainably produced when solar evaporation is used. This process, although very lengthy, utilized the sun and long shallow tables to evaporate the water: no net emissions. However, some processors use artificial heat to boil the water. This increases the evaporation rate and the salt production time becomes much less. But, this requires non-renewable sources like natural gas or wood.

Salt is everywhere. Just like anything, in moderation, salt can be a good thing for you and your palate. With so many salts to try, the possibilities are endless with how you can be like ancient Romans and Egyptians utilizing the same salts, just in the modern world. 

When I say the word salt, many people probably think of different things. Science minds will think of the product of acid and base reactions. Cooks will think of their many flaky salts, finishing salts, and the coveted Fleur de Sel (don’t worry that’s just French salt). Others will think of the little colored chunks we put on our roads and sidewalks to melt ice and now. Some, just think of their saltshaker. Salt is everywhere in our modern world, but what about salt makes it so special?

Salt and the Early World

Salt has been utilized in a variety of different ways throughout history. Salt was likely first discovered when we were still living in caves, around 10,000 years ago. At this time, they likely didn’t really think about salt how we do. To them, what hadn’t been named salt yet, may have had mysterious abilities to heal injuries and maybe even keep things “clean” from bacteria.

An early mummy now houses in Turin, Italy that is surround by Natron to keep the body moisture free. Source 1

The first people to first use salt knowingly were the Egyptians. The Egyptians were some of the first to utilize salt for preservation. They recognized that some salts, like Natron or sodium carbonate, have the unique ability to prevent rot from molds and insects on bodies. So, they packed bodies with them and shipped them down the Nile River.  

Salt even got to be so important in ancient history, it was an informal currency and was more expensive its weight in gold. The Roman phrase for the monthly allotment to soldiers, salarium, contained the Latin word “sal” which meant salt. This was because oftentimes instead of actual pay, a soldiers pay was in salt directly or was supplemented heavily with salt.

The Growing Demand

“Salting” was the process of encrusting meat with salt and then drying the meat when the salt was removed days later. Source 2

Just as salt had been used to preserve bodies, many realized that their food could be preserved too. That’s how we have some of our favorite meats like prosciutto, bacon, beef jerky, and ham. Raw cuts of the meat would be soaked in a salty brine solution or encased in salt for many days. During this time, the meat would absorb the salt and the water within would be replaced. This meant that bacteria could not grow, and the meat could be consumed over a long period of time.

In a time when refrigeration was not a thing and grocery stores with all the meat you could wish were on every corner, this was a major advancement. Instead of having to sell you extra meat or find a way to eat a whole cow in one day (granted meat was a delicacy back in those times), salt allowed for these large animals with lots of meat to be preserved and to have a much longer shelf life. Salt even kept people from getting sick from eating meat that had been left out a little too long.

Salt has been utilized throughout history and is still utilized to this day. There is so much to talk about, that I can’t even fit it into one blog. Please make sure to come back next week where I’ll be talking about where all this salt came from and how you can even make it yourself!

Açaí. Whether you know how to say it or not, it is hard to go without knowing the fruit. Over the past 10 years the fruit has gained popularity with a wide range of audiences. Açaí is acclaimed for its health benefits including increased cognitive function, COVID resistance, heart protection, weight loss, and much, much more.  Now it is found in drinks, granola bars, supplements, and most popular, frozen and sweetened as bowls.  

The “Açaí Bowl”, a combination of açaí, fruits, nuts, and granola. Source 1

Many thought it would just be an Instagram trend. Many thought it would be just another “super fruit” proven to be just your average fruit. So far, the growth has not stopped.  With more açaí bowl shops popping up on every street corner, including here on campus, the American demand for açaí has never been higher. So, how did the açaí we all know and love come to cement itself into our modern culture?

The Açaí Movement

It all started in the 1980s. Rio de Janeiro, much like US states like California, has seen its fair share of health crazes.  Açaí was modernized by the famous(according to Google) Brazilian Jujitsu founder Carlos Gracie. He built an entire nutritional system around the small purple fruit that claimed to give his fighters the leg up in the ring.  Soon it caught on throughout Brazil, where the trees are conveniently native.  

However, Gracie was not the first person to find açaí. Açaí has been consumed for hundreds of years by Amazonian tribes. Paired alongside many savory meals the berries are ground up and the pulp is enjoyed, unlike the sweetened and frozen treat we in America have come to know. Here, it has maintained life for people who often still live off of what nature produces. 

Euterpe oleracea, the açaí palm covered with fruit high up into the tree. Source 2

Some even say açaí, which means “fruit that cries” in native dialects, was the creation of the prayers of a chief’s heartbroken daughter. After a poor harvest, Chief Itaqui ordered all newborns to be sacrificed, including his granddaughter. Distraught, his daughter, Iaça (which happens to be açaí backward), cried herself to death and where she died sprouted the first açaí palm which sustained her people until the following season.  

The Problem Sustaining the Industry

As with any other rapidly growing industry, açaí does not come without controversy. To pick the berries, harvesters must climb the 60-foot palms with no more than a knife and rope around their feet. They swing from tree to tree collecting the fronds covered with delicate berries. It is a dangerous job that with no surprise leads to many injuries each year. The berries must quickly be picked from the branches and shipped off to processing for they spoil in under 48 hours. This often leaves small family growers selling a day’s worth of work for under 40 dollars. No matter how much they pick each season, many farmers are still left in poverty as they are stuck at the beginning of the price-gouging industry.  

A young child harvesting an açaí frond high up in tree. Source 3

To add further controversy, families throughout the Amazon utilize their children to pick berries. Often lighter than adults, the children, some as young as 10, can easily climb the trees. It was been this way for many decades as older generations teach the young how to continue their ways. Many have come to criticize this system. Some American companies claim to purchase only from certified child-free operations, of which they pay the same price per berries. Thus, often leaving families without a choice but to accept certification and continue to use all the hands available (including their children) to provide for the family.  

The Future of Açaí

In my opinion, I think açaí will become the new avocado, or the avocado became the new açaí, it’s hard to tell. It will fade in and out of popularity just as all “super fruits” do.  As for the industry standards, I think for the demand, the system is validated. American companies are demanding more and more cheap açaí to come out of Brazil-one of the few areas where the palms grow. This is pressuring exporters to find as much açaí as possible for the cheapest price. The demand is there and many families know that they can profit, even if it is still just enough to stay alive.  

That is not to say I condone the use of children to harvest. Yes, children should help their families run their “business” if they are desperately needed. However, more can be done to make them not desperately needed. In this case, legislation needs to get ahead of demand. 

Similar to the idea of Fair Trade cacao that I discussed in Chocolate: A Bitter-Sweet History price standards need to be established. When this is done, families won’t be forced to utilize their children to make ends meet and will be able to make a livable income from the berry that is in such demand. Açaí is not going anywhere. It is our job as consumers to ensure that we ensure fair systems be established to support the producers of the berry we have come to love so much.  

It’s only half past twelve. But I don’t care…It’s five o’clock somewhere.

It often seems a bit confusing. What really makes day drinking during the week so different than having a cocktail with brunch on a Sunday. What makes it a “problem” and when is it “justified”? These are moral and social issues not for this blog. No less, the ideas of Alan Jackson and Jimmy Buffet in their song “It’s Five O’clock Somewhere” have been echoed throughout history and, as it would appear, into the modern day. So, what has day drinking looked like throughout history?

The Middle Ages Savior

During the Middle Ages culture was expanding. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, culture was no longer unified and conformed under a single ruling ideal. Diversity of ideas and innovation flourished. However, the process to keep water clean and pure was not always perfect.

A depiction (circa. 1300) of a French monk sampling a fermented beverage-likely wine. Source 1

As basic first aid will teach you, alcohol kills germs. In a time when water purification wasn’t always perfect and access to fresh water depended on nature, people needs a safe source of water (or at least some water). At the time, the alcoholic beverage of choice was wine. But, it was reserved for clergymen and for the upper class who could afford the fermented grape drink. Therefore, it was fermenting grains like wheat and barley that allowed some facets of Medieval peoples to have a beverage that was relatively free of deadly pathogens.

Getting Drunk for God

Bavarian monks (go figure) were the first to perfect the early predecessors to modern beer at the turn of the millennium. Containing around one percent alcohol, getting drunk may be an overstatement. These beers, often referred to as “liquid bread”, were drunken as supplements for monks as they fasted for Lent. The high carb content gave plenty of energy to the monks and allowed them to continue their duties over the 40+ days of fasting.

Soon, beer became a staple in the households of people throughout Europe. It was cheap, readily available, and could be made with the wide range of grains that grew throughout the landscapes. Soon it was alongside every meal and provided a full feeling even when it was paired with little food.

Beer for the Laborer

It was with no surprise that between the fifteenth century and the mid-nineteenth century that a beer, likely with a bit more alcohol, was taken before work. This tradition was shared around the world as the practice of making beer, whether light or dark or somewhere in between, was adapted to each society and culture.

Dublin law limits the amount of “Early Houses”; many are still the originals from as early as the 1600’s. Source 2

Throughout the world culture absorbed beer into everyday life.  Farmers made batches of winter beer to have ready for the summer. Supplemental harvesters would be given this beer to sustain them through the long hot days in the field. Fishermen in Dublin would make a morning stop at “Early Houses” to have a hearty breakfast and wash it down with a pint of beer. Some might even say the beer was the reason that the workers kept working each day!

Booze in America

Early America shared much of its drinking culture with England (again, go figure). However, as the nation evolved so did the drinking ideology. Through the Second World War, it was not uncommon to down a cold one before work or have a glass of bourbon or whisky as a mid-morning pick-me-up.

In the modern day, drinking on the job is limited to stay-at-home workers and those with extra lenient bosses and no HR. No less, the weekend Mimosa or Bloody Mary still serves as a quintessential beverage of choice for those special and not-so-special brunches throughout the year.  Who knows, maybe one day it will be margaritas helping us all hang on.