Date: September 23, 2023 

It would be impossible to discuss the past century of European history without mentioning Germany and its drastic influence not only on the outbreaks of war but also on the face of European politics. However, as we entered the 20th century, Germany itself was still a relatively new and young country, having been formed just 29 years earlier. The man responsible for said formation: Otto von Bismarck. This leads me to… 

On this day 161 years ago, Otto von Bismarck was appointed prime minister of Prussia.  

Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian politician who went on to serve as the first chancellor of the German Empire. However, he is most notably recognized as the mastermind behind the unification of Germany.  

Throughout his early career, Bismarck held a series of ambassadorships that provided him with invaluable insight into both the complex political relationships between nations and the vulnerabilities of the greatest European powers. It is important to note that Otto von Bismarck was not the first Prussian, or political figure in general, to propose the unification of German states. He was also not the first to take action towards unification. He was, however, the only one who succeeded. His appointment as Prime Minister opened the door for him to access the power and resources necessary to achieve such a feat as unification. 

His success in unification can be attributed to his use of warfare and the subsequent exploitation of German nationalism that arose from battlefield victories.  

Only three years after his appointment, he began the first of a series of wars aimed at establishing Prussian dominance throughout Europe. The biggest threat to his ambitions of controlling the northern German states was Austria, as both nations sought control. Bismarck, however, displayed his military cleverness and had already prepared the army for war. Consequently, the war against Austria was quickly won. It was at this point that he recognized the need for one final war to unite the southern German states, which was achieved through the Franco-Prussian War. Through his political and social prowess, Bismarck united the German states to fight and ultimately defeat France in 1871. This marked the birth of the German nation, with the German states under the Prussian crown.  

His focus then shifted to consolidating and strengthening Germany. Bismarck proceeded to establish Europe’s first modern welfare state by implementing a national healthcare system, accident insurance, and old-age pensions. His political practice, realpolitik, emphasized principles grounded in practical rather than moral considerations, arguing that national success depended on prioritizing the state above all else. His creation of alliances between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia allowed for a balance of power and brought peace to settle over Europe for the first time in decades.  

His immense success in the political sphere can largely be attributed to his manipulation of democratic mechanisms and political savvy. Bismarck established Germany as one of Europe’s greatest powers, ultimately setting the stage for the growth of national tensions which would soon explode into World War I.  

Sources 

Barkin, Kenneth. “Otto von Bismarck.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-von-Bismarck/Prime-minister.  

“Otto von Bismarck – Biography, World Wars & Facts.” History.Com, 7 June 2019, www.history.com/topics/european-history/otto-von-bismarck. 

Date: September 11, 2023

During the 18th century, nations such as France and Great Britain quickly transformed into world powers and tensions surrounding absolutist monarchs and religion planted the seeds for conflict. One of the first hints of conflicts to come was the War of Spanish Succession which began in 1701 and ended in 1714. THUS….

On this day 314 years ago, the Battle of Malplaquet was fought during the War of Spanish Succession.

The Battle of Malplaquet was influential in that it turned the tide of the war towards France, however, I am using this battle as a segue into the War of Spanish Succession, a hidden, yet fascinating, event whose influence continues today.

The War of Spanish Succession was considered to be the first global war and it quickly emerged from the heated dispute surrounding the Spanish throne. The previous king, Charles II, died childless leaving no direct heir to the throne and thus, it was a scramble for the throne.The Spanish Habsburgs fought in alliance with the Holy Roman Empire and Great Britain against the Spanish Bourbons who were in alliance with France, both sides having dynastic claims to the throne. It is important to note here that in Charles II’s will, he left the kingdom to Phillip V, the grandson of King Louis XIV of France (and the cousin of Charles II), however, there lie the central issue.

King Louis XIV’s grandson, Phillip V, now had claims to both the French and Spanish throne due to Charles’ will. Surrounding nations quickly saw the danger of Phillip becoming King of both countries and thus, having the opportunity to form one absolute superpower. To make things even more complicated, Charles II had another cousin, Leopold I, who felt his grandson should be King and hence, the War of Spanish Succession began.

The war spanned over 13 years with multiple failed attempts of peace negotiations. It ultimately resulted in the establishment of Philip V as King of Spain, on the terms he be permanently removed from the French line to the throne thereby preventing the union of France and Spain. The war prevented France domination, which if allowed, would have drastically altered history. Stop for a moment and imagine what the world would look like if France and Spain were unified. How exactly would have history been altered? Would the nation remain a superpower or crumble due to religious polarizations? What would the unification mean for European politics? Much of what fascinates me about history, and this war in particular, are the possibilities of the “what if?”

Ultimately, it is evident to see the power-hungry tendencies of the European nations which characterized this absolutist time. More importantly, these nations saw firsthand the dangers of a global war and it’s uncontrollable nature, a war that was driven by a blind lust for more power and land. It was a lesson they quickly forgot and a repeat of the same mistake when the same lust for power began the World Wars centuries later.

Source:

https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession

Date: September 5th, 2023

As a passionate history buff, there is little that I love more than European History, however in the large expanse of events in which encompass the umbrella of European History, there is a special place in my heart for the French Revolution. In speaking of the French Revolution, most people think of its similarities to the American Revolution, the beheading of the French King, and some may even know the name Napoleon Bonaparte. However, what few people think about or even know about, would be the Reign of Terror. This leads me to….

On this day 230 years ago, the Reign of Terror began in France.

The Reign of Terror is one of the most influential, yet unknown, “legs” of the French Revolution, as it gave the French public a very clear image as to what NOT to do in terms of handling the government. It is important to note that the Reign of Terror began on September 5th, 1793, only months after the execution of King Louis XVI, which left France, for the first time in over a thousand years, without a central monarch. The unstable government struggled to handle the rising pressures from surrounding countries which were eager to invade France. France was essentially drowning in its own chaos, and Maximilien Robespierre recognized this as a dangerous weakness and spearheaded the Reign of Terror.

On September 5th Maximilien Robespierre, along with the rest of his Jacobins party, declared that terror would “order the day,” rather than civil government. Worried about the constant uprisings across the French countryside within the revolution and the hostile armies surrounding France, Robespierre announced the immediate new rule where harsh actions would be taken against those suspected of being enemies of the state. The promises of harsh actions culminated in over  50,000 people being executed by guillotine over a ten-month period.

During the Reign of Terror, the group in power was the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee exercised “virtual dictatorial control” over all aspects of the government and operations of society. I have to insert the obvious hypocrisy which surrounds the name as this so-called  Committee of “Public Safety,” ordered countless unwarranted executions under the premise of halting the counter revolution. Those in power at the time believed that the only way the future of the revolution was to be guaranteed was through harsh actions against all. However, this deep mistrust of the French public by those in power led to extreme measures being taken against ordinary citizens, thus beginning a mutual mistrust and hatred between the people and their government. What few realize is that it would be years until Napoleon Bonaparte would take power and begin to rebuild this deeply fractured relationship which would halt much of the progress of the revolution. This mistrust between the public and the government would ultimately be the downfall of Robespierre, the Committee, and ultimately this period. The Reign of Terror officially ended with the execution of Robespierre as a result of his conspiring behind the backs of his fellow Jacobins.

In an overview of these ten-months, few to no steps forward were taken in regards to the economy, rights of the citizens, or the issue of food scarcity, thus achieving none of the three primary issues in which started the whole revolution in the first place. It is safe to say that truly none of the original goals or motivations of the Reign of Terror were ever actually achieved, thus, pointing to the somewhat obvious fact that in terms of the revolution, it was an outright failure.

Source:

“Reign of Terror.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 29 Aug. 2023, www.britannica.com/event/Reign-of-Terror.