Date: October 31, 2023 

By the 1500s, the Church had amassed an unprecedented level of wealth and authority. With its power extending to all aspects of European life, the Catholic Church became increasingly driven by manipulative figures and widespread corruption. Observers of the faith took note of the corruptive practices, the exploitation of the poor, and the sale of indulgences, prompting them to take to the pen to voice their concerns. Martin Luther saw first-hand the issues within the Catholic Church, fueling him to write the 95 Theses in which he explicitly articulated his grievances with the Church. This leads me to… 

On this day 506 years ago, Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses, sparking the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation.  

Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian whose beliefs gave rise to Protestantism, the third major domination of Christianity. Fueled by his frustrations with the corruption within the church, Luther published the 95 Theses, a compilation of 95 complaints and issues he felt needed to be addressed. It is important to note that Luther did not intend for his message to gain traction and gain wide circulation across Europe; rather, he had originally hoped to raise community awareness. However, after Luther posted the pamphlet on the door, an anonymous individual took it to the local printing press, causing it to rapidly circulate throughout Europe. Few dared to voice concerns about the church’s conduct or criticize its officials due to their intimidating status, and as a result, Luther’s denouncing pamphlet rapidly garnered attention.  

Luther drastically altered the religious sphere of Europe as he and his Protestant faith gained popularity. He passionately advocated for the necessary reform of the Catholic Church and the introduction of his own religious ideas. The primary points in the Theses centered around five ideas: (1) salvation is achieved by faith alone, (2) the Primacy of Scripture, affirming that the Bible is the sole valid authority, (3) universal access to God, (4) the recognition of two sacraments, baptism and communism, instead of the original seven sacraments in Catholicism, and (5) the right for clergy to marry. Luther emphasized that those in position of power within the Church had strayed significantly from the tenets of the Bible and could no longer be trusted nor regarded as holy figures due to their corruptive behaviors. He called out members of the church for the selling of indulgences, asserting that there should be no world where absolution from sin can be bought off using one’s wealth. The 95 Theses marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation, a movement where Catholicism suffered and Protestantism quickly rose.  

Throughout the 95 Theses, a recurring theme was his direct challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church, an unprecedented action at the time. He aimed to strip power away from the Pope and the institutional body of the Catholic Church and return it to the hands of God. Ultimately, Luther posed the questions that few were willing to ask at the time, ensuring that his legacy would far outlast his lifetime. 

Source:

“Ninety-Five Theses.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 24 Oct. 2023, www.britannica.com/event/Ninety-five-Theses.

Date: October 24th, 2023 

To no one’s surprise, there is yet another European War which we have yet to discuss, and even less surprising, this war also arose from religious disputes. During this time, nations were profoundly entwined with their faith, and as the political landscape evolved, many eagerly turned to battle in pursuit of more territory, power, and the spread of their religion. This all leads me to… 

On this day 375 years ago, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed and the Thirty Years War ended.  

The Thirty Years’ War, spanning from 1618 to 1648, began as as a struggle between Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire. It is often regarded as the final war of the “Wars of Religion Era,” and stands as one of the longest and most brutal wars in history. Although it primarily took place in the Holy Roman Empire, virtually every dominant European power became involved either directly or indirectly. While its primary cause may have been religious, the war’s focus shifted over time, becoming more about the struggle for control Europe.  

When Emperor Ferdinand II became the Head of State of the Holy Roman Empire, he immediately signed a decree which forced citizens of the empire to convert to Roman Catholicism and adhere to its practices, despite the previously granted religious freedom. The Bohemian nobility, who were primarily Protestants, strongly opposed the decree and responded by throwing the Emperor’s representatives out of a window, igniting the Thirty Years War.  

The Northern Bohemian states of the Holy Roman Empire were largely Protestant and felt personally targeted by the Emperor and his decree. The first stage of the war, coined the Bohemian Revolt, was characterized by over a decade of fighting between the Protestants and the Catholics. Bohemian nobles sought alliances with fellow Protestant states in the empire, while Ferdinand II sought for support from his nephew, King Phillip IV of Spain.  

Across the thirty years of the war, various nations became involved including France, Denmark-Norway, and Spain, giving both the Protestants and Catholics the upper hand, though neither side could keep it for very long.  

Exhausted from relentless warfare and a struggle from both sides to gain a permanent and decisive advantage, negotiations among the European powers began, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia. It is important to note that it was not one singular treaty, rather it was a series of treaties signed between various nations involved in the conflict.  

The Treaty played a pivotal role in laying groundwork for the formation of the modern nation-states and establishing fixed, permanent boundaries between nations. It radically altered the balance of power in Europe by reducing the influence of the Catholic Church, which had been the supreme power over Europe for centuries.  

Ultimately, the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia marked a significant step in the development of tolerance and secularization within European politics, however, it would be centuries until religious tensions entirely ceased in Western Europe.  

Source:

“Thirty Years’ War.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 21 Aug. 2018, www.history.com/topics/european-history/thirty-years-war. 

Date: October 17th, 2023 

It is not an exaggeration to say that Europe was no stranger to wars during the 19th century. This was largely due to the constant religious and political tensions brewing between nations, coupled with their widespread desires for dominance. Numerous conflicts unfolded during this time, but today, our focus turns to the Crimean War. This leads me to… 

On this day 169 years ago, French and British troops launched the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War.  

The Crimean War spanned three years and claimed over 650,000 lives as France, Turkey, Great Britain (known as the Allies) and the Ottoman Empire clashed with Russia. Interestingly, the war is considered to be “the first modern technological conflict,” with telegraph lines and mass-produced rifles used for the first time. Similar to many wars of that era, this conflict emerged from brewing political tensions and religious disagreements.   

Tsar Nicholas I of Russia was eager to demonstrate his recently established military strength, with the goal of firmly establishing Russia as a European superpower, following decades of turmoil in his nation. He set his sights on the already-weakened Ottoman Empire, recognizing it as an easy target and a means to expand his influence into the Middle East.  

Tensions flared between Catholics and Orthodox believers over their access to sacred lands such as Jerusalem and other places which were under Turkish rule. The Ottoman Empire granted the French Roman Catholics privileges to Jerusalem, however, Russian Orthodox believers were denied said access. Nicholas demanded access, asserting his role as the absolute protector of Orthodox Christians, yet the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire denied both the access and his self-proclaimed title of protector. In response to this, Nicholas invaded in 1853 and thus, the Crimean War began. 

Great Britian, growing uneasy about the aggressive military force of the Russians, joined the war in 1854, aiming to prevent further Russian expansion and preserve the fragile balance of power. France, concerned about its own trade routes through the region and seeking retribution for Napoleon’s semi-recent defeat at the hands of the Russian, also entered the war in 1854. 

Despite an initial defeat on the Crimean Peninsula, the Allies headed to Sevastopol for what they hoped to be a three-month siege. However, the fighting ultimately endured for almost a year. During the siege, both sides suffered heavy causalities and substantial setbacks. The Allies lacked the necessary heavy artillery to break through the Russian defenses, and the Russians encountered difficulties in accessing their necessary supplies and ammunition. The onset of winter brought additional hardships and heavy casualties to both sides. Nevertheless, the Allies prevailed and ultimately overtook the city. 

After lengthy bombardments and the impending threat of Austria joining the Allies, Russia surrendered in the summer of 1855. The Treaty of Paris was signed, forcing Russia to relinquish the seized land and demilitarize the Black Sea. Unfortunately, the treaty did little to establish peace, as tensions between the Russians and Turks continued for decades to come. 

Source:

“Crimean War – Summary, Facts & Causes.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 5 Aug. 2021, www.history.com/topics/european-history/crimean-war.

Date: October 8th, 2023 

As evident from the previous blogs, European history was nothing short of chaotic. Revolutions erupted at every opportunity, and countless wars were waged over political and religious disputes, making stability a rare commodity. At the time, political stability was rarely a top priority for leaders, but Klemens von Metternich stood apart in this regard. This leads me to…. 

On this day 214 years ago, Klemens von Metternich was named foreign minister of Austria.  

Klemens von Metternich served as Austria’s minister of foreign affairs for four decades. He not only wielded significant governmental power but also held a considerable influence over both the government and the public. His reputation extended far beyond his job description, as he ultimately stood as the symbol of 19th century European conservatism.  

Unlike his counterparts, Metternich placed a central emphasis on achieving political stability for Austria. This commitment fueled many of his political decisions, policies, and actions throughout his political career.  

He firmly opposed the concept of democracy, believing that it would only weaken Europe and lead to countless revolutions and unnecessary wars. Instead, he advocated for strong, central governments as the only means to ensure enduring prosperity and peace. He argued for the need of organized religion within Austria and harshly scrutinized liberal nationalist movements due to their inherent danger. Many of his political stances were heavily influenced by the state of Europe during his adolescence and early political career. This time was marked by revolutions sweeping across Europe and countless wars fought in a continual struggle for control. Thus, in the eyes of Metternich, stability in politics and government could only be achieved through a centralized monarchy ruling over the citizens with a firm hand.  

His political savvy was evident in his ability to anticipate issues with other nations or defuse rising tensions before they escalated. This is particularly exemplified in his handling of the unpredictable ruling of Napoleon Bonaparte. Recognizing that Austria’s army would be no match for Napoleon’s on the battlefield, Metternich knew that he must gain the upper hand some other way. Thus, he arranged the meeting of Napoleon and the Austrian emperor’s daughter. Months later, the two were married, securing Austria protection and peace during the Napoleonic Wars.  

Beyond that, Metternich’s most significant achievement was his orchestration of the Congress of Vienna. The Congress of Vienna, a conference between France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, aimed to restore the legitimacy of monarchies and the balance of power to Europe after the disruptive Napoleonic Wars. He persuaded leaders to consider political and economic power in novel ways, going beyond the surface-level desires of gaining more land or money. His moderation during the congress produced a long-lasting order in Europe and its success can largely be attributed “to his diplomatic capability rather than… his political foresight” (“Klemens von Metternich”). 

Ultimately, through his political prowess, Metternich restored Austria as a leading European power with prosperous times to come.  

Source

Otmar, Karl, and Baron von Aretin. “Leadership of the Congress of Vienna of Klemens von Metternich.” Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 2023, www.britannica.com.

Date: October 1st, 2023 

The English monarchy stands as one of the most famous and beloved monarchies today; however, it has not always held this status. Specifically in the 15th and 16th centuries, the monarchs were extremely unfavored due to their blatant disregard for the rules. In speaking of despised monarchs, one name which immediately comes to mind is “Bloody” Mary. This leads me to…. 

On this day 470 years ago, Mary Tudor was coronated as Queen of England.  

The reign of Mary Tudor stood as both monumental and treacherous. In the 21 monarchs which came before her, they all had at least one commonality: they were male. Mary I was the first woman to rule England in her own right. She was the sole surviving child of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry VIII would later separate from Catherine and marry five other women in hopes of siring a son. His third wife ultimately gave him his long-awaited male heir Edward VI. However, Edward was a sickly child and only ruled for 6 short years before dying. Members of Parliament and Edward VI explored every possible avenue to remove Catherine from the line of succession, however, nothing was successful.  

After succeeding Edward, Catherine sought to restore Catholic doctrine and practice, essentially reversing every action initiated by her Protestant-centered father. She held a deep resentment towards her father, not only for his banishment of her mother but also for his outright opposition to the Catholic Church. Coupled with a lack of respect from Parliament and the public due to her gender, her anger fueled an aggressive ruling style and brutal methods of punishment.  

Both Henry VIII, her father, and Edward VI, her stepbrother, had enacted anti-Catholic doctrines and pushed for Protestant policies. Catherine, however, took the opposite approach. She began to reverse the anti-Catholic practices and returned the English church to Roman jurisdiction. In 1555, she reinstated the heresy laws, making it a crime to be Protestant or associated with any form of Protestantism in England. Catherine swiftly jumped into burning offenders at the stake, starting with her father’s trusted advisor, Thomas Cranmer. She ordered the burning of over 300 convicted heretics, most of whom were common citizens. Many more died in captivity, and over 800 fled the country to avoid prosecution. Thus, her infamous nickname, Bloody Mary, was born.  

She married Phillip I of Spain in hopes of strengthening Catholic ties and securing a Catholic heir to the throne. However, no heir was produced, and Mary’s dominant personality created a significant rift between her and Phillip, who had intended to exert his own dominance.  

Her persecution and the burning of Protestants continued until her death in 1558. The reign of Mary I left the English public with a deep mistrust of the monarch and numerous tensions surrounding the religious affiliation of the nation. Elizabeth I succeeded Mary I and would bring England into its prosperous times set in the Elizabethan Era.  

Source 

“Mary I.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 21 Aug. 2019, www.history.com/topics/european-history/mary-i.