Date: October 24th, 2023 

To no one’s surprise, there is yet another European War which we have yet to discuss, and even less surprising, this war also arose from religious disputes. During this time, nations were profoundly entwined with their faith, and as the political landscape evolved, many eagerly turned to battle in pursuit of more territory, power, and the spread of their religion. This all leads me to… 

On this day 375 years ago, the Treaty of Westphalia was signed and the Thirty Years War ended.  

The Thirty Years’ War, spanning from 1618 to 1648, began as as a struggle between Catholic and Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire. It is often regarded as the final war of the “Wars of Religion Era,” and stands as one of the longest and most brutal wars in history. Although it primarily took place in the Holy Roman Empire, virtually every dominant European power became involved either directly or indirectly. While its primary cause may have been religious, the war’s focus shifted over time, becoming more about the struggle for control Europe.  

When Emperor Ferdinand II became the Head of State of the Holy Roman Empire, he immediately signed a decree which forced citizens of the empire to convert to Roman Catholicism and adhere to its practices, despite the previously granted religious freedom. The Bohemian nobility, who were primarily Protestants, strongly opposed the decree and responded by throwing the Emperor’s representatives out of a window, igniting the Thirty Years War.  

The Northern Bohemian states of the Holy Roman Empire were largely Protestant and felt personally targeted by the Emperor and his decree. The first stage of the war, coined the Bohemian Revolt, was characterized by over a decade of fighting between the Protestants and the Catholics. Bohemian nobles sought alliances with fellow Protestant states in the empire, while Ferdinand II sought for support from his nephew, King Phillip IV of Spain.  

Across the thirty years of the war, various nations became involved including France, Denmark-Norway, and Spain, giving both the Protestants and Catholics the upper hand, though neither side could keep it for very long.  

Exhausted from relentless warfare and a struggle from both sides to gain a permanent and decisive advantage, negotiations among the European powers began, culminating in the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia. It is important to note that it was not one singular treaty, rather it was a series of treaties signed between various nations involved in the conflict.  

The Treaty played a pivotal role in laying groundwork for the formation of the modern nation-states and establishing fixed, permanent boundaries between nations. It radically altered the balance of power in Europe by reducing the influence of the Catholic Church, which had been the supreme power over Europe for centuries.  

Ultimately, the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia marked a significant step in the development of tolerance and secularization within European politics, however, it would be centuries until religious tensions entirely ceased in Western Europe.  

Source:

“Thirty Years’ War.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 21 Aug. 2018, www.history.com/topics/european-history/thirty-years-war. 

Date: October 17th, 2023 

It is not an exaggeration to say that Europe was no stranger to wars during the 19th century. This was largely due to the constant religious and political tensions brewing between nations, coupled with their widespread desires for dominance. Numerous conflicts unfolded during this time, but today, our focus turns to the Crimean War. This leads me to… 

On this day 169 years ago, French and British troops launched the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War.  

The Crimean War spanned three years and claimed over 650,000 lives as France, Turkey, Great Britain (known as the Allies) and the Ottoman Empire clashed with Russia. Interestingly, the war is considered to be “the first modern technological conflict,” with telegraph lines and mass-produced rifles used for the first time. Similar to many wars of that era, this conflict emerged from brewing political tensions and religious disagreements.   

Tsar Nicholas I of Russia was eager to demonstrate his recently established military strength, with the goal of firmly establishing Russia as a European superpower, following decades of turmoil in his nation. He set his sights on the already-weakened Ottoman Empire, recognizing it as an easy target and a means to expand his influence into the Middle East.  

Tensions flared between Catholics and Orthodox believers over their access to sacred lands such as Jerusalem and other places which were under Turkish rule. The Ottoman Empire granted the French Roman Catholics privileges to Jerusalem, however, Russian Orthodox believers were denied said access. Nicholas demanded access, asserting his role as the absolute protector of Orthodox Christians, yet the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire denied both the access and his self-proclaimed title of protector. In response to this, Nicholas invaded in 1853 and thus, the Crimean War began. 

Great Britian, growing uneasy about the aggressive military force of the Russians, joined the war in 1854, aiming to prevent further Russian expansion and preserve the fragile balance of power. France, concerned about its own trade routes through the region and seeking retribution for Napoleon’s semi-recent defeat at the hands of the Russian, also entered the war in 1854. 

Despite an initial defeat on the Crimean Peninsula, the Allies headed to Sevastopol for what they hoped to be a three-month siege. However, the fighting ultimately endured for almost a year. During the siege, both sides suffered heavy causalities and substantial setbacks. The Allies lacked the necessary heavy artillery to break through the Russian defenses, and the Russians encountered difficulties in accessing their necessary supplies and ammunition. The onset of winter brought additional hardships and heavy casualties to both sides. Nevertheless, the Allies prevailed and ultimately overtook the city. 

After lengthy bombardments and the impending threat of Austria joining the Allies, Russia surrendered in the summer of 1855. The Treaty of Paris was signed, forcing Russia to relinquish the seized land and demilitarize the Black Sea. Unfortunately, the treaty did little to establish peace, as tensions between the Russians and Turks continued for decades to come. 

Source:

“Crimean War – Summary, Facts & Causes.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 5 Aug. 2021, www.history.com/topics/european-history/crimean-war.

Date: October 8th, 2023 

As evident from the previous blogs, European history was nothing short of chaotic. Revolutions erupted at every opportunity, and countless wars were waged over political and religious disputes, making stability a rare commodity. At the time, political stability was rarely a top priority for leaders, but Klemens von Metternich stood apart in this regard. This leads me to…. 

On this day 214 years ago, Klemens von Metternich was named foreign minister of Austria.  

Klemens von Metternich served as Austria’s minister of foreign affairs for four decades. He not only wielded significant governmental power but also held a considerable influence over both the government and the public. His reputation extended far beyond his job description, as he ultimately stood as the symbol of 19th century European conservatism.  

Unlike his counterparts, Metternich placed a central emphasis on achieving political stability for Austria. This commitment fueled many of his political decisions, policies, and actions throughout his political career.  

He firmly opposed the concept of democracy, believing that it would only weaken Europe and lead to countless revolutions and unnecessary wars. Instead, he advocated for strong, central governments as the only means to ensure enduring prosperity and peace. He argued for the need of organized religion within Austria and harshly scrutinized liberal nationalist movements due to their inherent danger. Many of his political stances were heavily influenced by the state of Europe during his adolescence and early political career. This time was marked by revolutions sweeping across Europe and countless wars fought in a continual struggle for control. Thus, in the eyes of Metternich, stability in politics and government could only be achieved through a centralized monarchy ruling over the citizens with a firm hand.  

His political savvy was evident in his ability to anticipate issues with other nations or defuse rising tensions before they escalated. This is particularly exemplified in his handling of the unpredictable ruling of Napoleon Bonaparte. Recognizing that Austria’s army would be no match for Napoleon’s on the battlefield, Metternich knew that he must gain the upper hand some other way. Thus, he arranged the meeting of Napoleon and the Austrian emperor’s daughter. Months later, the two were married, securing Austria protection and peace during the Napoleonic Wars.  

Beyond that, Metternich’s most significant achievement was his orchestration of the Congress of Vienna. The Congress of Vienna, a conference between France, Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, aimed to restore the legitimacy of monarchies and the balance of power to Europe after the disruptive Napoleonic Wars. He persuaded leaders to consider political and economic power in novel ways, going beyond the surface-level desires of gaining more land or money. His moderation during the congress produced a long-lasting order in Europe and its success can largely be attributed “to his diplomatic capability rather than… his political foresight” (“Klemens von Metternich”). 

Ultimately, through his political prowess, Metternich restored Austria as a leading European power with prosperous times to come.  

Source

Otmar, Karl, and Baron von Aretin. “Leadership of the Congress of Vienna of Klemens von Metternich.” Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 2023, www.britannica.com.

Date: October 1st, 2023 

The English monarchy stands as one of the most famous and beloved monarchies today; however, it has not always held this status. Specifically in the 15th and 16th centuries, the monarchs were extremely unfavored due to their blatant disregard for the rules. In speaking of despised monarchs, one name which immediately comes to mind is “Bloody” Mary. This leads me to…. 

On this day 470 years ago, Mary Tudor was coronated as Queen of England.  

The reign of Mary Tudor stood as both monumental and treacherous. In the 21 monarchs which came before her, they all had at least one commonality: they were male. Mary I was the first woman to rule England in her own right. She was the sole surviving child of Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Henry VIII would later separate from Catherine and marry five other women in hopes of siring a son. His third wife ultimately gave him his long-awaited male heir Edward VI. However, Edward was a sickly child and only ruled for 6 short years before dying. Members of Parliament and Edward VI explored every possible avenue to remove Catherine from the line of succession, however, nothing was successful.  

After succeeding Edward, Catherine sought to restore Catholic doctrine and practice, essentially reversing every action initiated by her Protestant-centered father. She held a deep resentment towards her father, not only for his banishment of her mother but also for his outright opposition to the Catholic Church. Coupled with a lack of respect from Parliament and the public due to her gender, her anger fueled an aggressive ruling style and brutal methods of punishment.  

Both Henry VIII, her father, and Edward VI, her stepbrother, had enacted anti-Catholic doctrines and pushed for Protestant policies. Catherine, however, took the opposite approach. She began to reverse the anti-Catholic practices and returned the English church to Roman jurisdiction. In 1555, she reinstated the heresy laws, making it a crime to be Protestant or associated with any form of Protestantism in England. Catherine swiftly jumped into burning offenders at the stake, starting with her father’s trusted advisor, Thomas Cranmer. She ordered the burning of over 300 convicted heretics, most of whom were common citizens. Many more died in captivity, and over 800 fled the country to avoid prosecution. Thus, her infamous nickname, Bloody Mary, was born.  

She married Phillip I of Spain in hopes of strengthening Catholic ties and securing a Catholic heir to the throne. However, no heir was produced, and Mary’s dominant personality created a significant rift between her and Phillip, who had intended to exert his own dominance.  

Her persecution and the burning of Protestants continued until her death in 1558. The reign of Mary I left the English public with a deep mistrust of the monarch and numerous tensions surrounding the religious affiliation of the nation. Elizabeth I succeeded Mary I and would bring England into its prosperous times set in the Elizabethan Era.  

Source 

“Mary I.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, 21 Aug. 2019, www.history.com/topics/european-history/mary-i. 

Date: September 23, 2023 

It would be impossible to discuss the past century of European history without mentioning Germany and its drastic influence not only on the outbreaks of war but also on the face of European politics. However, as we entered the 20th century, Germany itself was still a relatively new and young country, having been formed just 29 years earlier. The man responsible for said formation: Otto von Bismarck. This leads me to… 

On this day 161 years ago, Otto von Bismarck was appointed prime minister of Prussia.  

Otto von Bismarck was a Prussian politician who went on to serve as the first chancellor of the German Empire. However, he is most notably recognized as the mastermind behind the unification of Germany.  

Throughout his early career, Bismarck held a series of ambassadorships that provided him with invaluable insight into both the complex political relationships between nations and the vulnerabilities of the greatest European powers. It is important to note that Otto von Bismarck was not the first Prussian, or political figure in general, to propose the unification of German states. He was also not the first to take action towards unification. He was, however, the only one who succeeded. His appointment as Prime Minister opened the door for him to access the power and resources necessary to achieve such a feat as unification. 

His success in unification can be attributed to his use of warfare and the subsequent exploitation of German nationalism that arose from battlefield victories.  

Only three years after his appointment, he began the first of a series of wars aimed at establishing Prussian dominance throughout Europe. The biggest threat to his ambitions of controlling the northern German states was Austria, as both nations sought control. Bismarck, however, displayed his military cleverness and had already prepared the army for war. Consequently, the war against Austria was quickly won. It was at this point that he recognized the need for one final war to unite the southern German states, which was achieved through the Franco-Prussian War. Through his political and social prowess, Bismarck united the German states to fight and ultimately defeat France in 1871. This marked the birth of the German nation, with the German states under the Prussian crown.  

His focus then shifted to consolidating and strengthening Germany. Bismarck proceeded to establish Europe’s first modern welfare state by implementing a national healthcare system, accident insurance, and old-age pensions. His political practice, realpolitik, emphasized principles grounded in practical rather than moral considerations, arguing that national success depended on prioritizing the state above all else. His creation of alliances between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia allowed for a balance of power and brought peace to settle over Europe for the first time in decades.  

His immense success in the political sphere can largely be attributed to his manipulation of democratic mechanisms and political savvy. Bismarck established Germany as one of Europe’s greatest powers, ultimately setting the stage for the growth of national tensions which would soon explode into World War I.  

Sources 

Barkin, Kenneth. “Otto von Bismarck.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., www.britannica.com/biography/Otto-von-Bismarck/Prime-minister.  

“Otto von Bismarck – Biography, World Wars & Facts.” History.Com, 7 June 2019, www.history.com/topics/european-history/otto-von-bismarck. 

Date: September 11, 2023

During the 18th century, nations such as France and Great Britain quickly transformed into world powers and tensions surrounding absolutist monarchs and religion planted the seeds for conflict. One of the first hints of conflicts to come was the War of Spanish Succession which began in 1701 and ended in 1714. THUS….

On this day 314 years ago, the Battle of Malplaquet was fought during the War of Spanish Succession.

The Battle of Malplaquet was influential in that it turned the tide of the war towards France, however, I am using this battle as a segue into the War of Spanish Succession, a hidden, yet fascinating, event whose influence continues today.

The War of Spanish Succession was considered to be the first global war and it quickly emerged from the heated dispute surrounding the Spanish throne. The previous king, Charles II, died childless leaving no direct heir to the throne and thus, it was a scramble for the throne.The Spanish Habsburgs fought in alliance with the Holy Roman Empire and Great Britain against the Spanish Bourbons who were in alliance with France, both sides having dynastic claims to the throne. It is important to note here that in Charles II’s will, he left the kingdom to Phillip V, the grandson of King Louis XIV of France (and the cousin of Charles II), however, there lie the central issue.

King Louis XIV’s grandson, Phillip V, now had claims to both the French and Spanish throne due to Charles’ will. Surrounding nations quickly saw the danger of Phillip becoming King of both countries and thus, having the opportunity to form one absolute superpower. To make things even more complicated, Charles II had another cousin, Leopold I, who felt his grandson should be King and hence, the War of Spanish Succession began.

The war spanned over 13 years with multiple failed attempts of peace negotiations. It ultimately resulted in the establishment of Philip V as King of Spain, on the terms he be permanently removed from the French line to the throne thereby preventing the union of France and Spain. The war prevented France domination, which if allowed, would have drastically altered history. Stop for a moment and imagine what the world would look like if France and Spain were unified. How exactly would have history been altered? Would the nation remain a superpower or crumble due to religious polarizations? What would the unification mean for European politics? Much of what fascinates me about history, and this war in particular, are the possibilities of the “what if?”

Ultimately, it is evident to see the power-hungry tendencies of the European nations which characterized this absolutist time. More importantly, these nations saw firsthand the dangers of a global war and it’s uncontrollable nature, a war that was driven by a blind lust for more power and land. It was a lesson they quickly forgot and a repeat of the same mistake when the same lust for power began the World Wars centuries later.

Source:

https://www.britannica.com/event/War-of-the-Spanish-Succession

Date: September 5th, 2023

As a passionate history buff, there is little that I love more than European History, however in the large expanse of events in which encompass the umbrella of European History, there is a special place in my heart for the French Revolution. In speaking of the French Revolution, most people think of its similarities to the American Revolution, the beheading of the French King, and some may even know the name Napoleon Bonaparte. However, what few people think about or even know about, would be the Reign of Terror. This leads me to….

On this day 230 years ago, the Reign of Terror began in France.

The Reign of Terror is one of the most influential, yet unknown, “legs” of the French Revolution, as it gave the French public a very clear image as to what NOT to do in terms of handling the government. It is important to note that the Reign of Terror began on September 5th, 1793, only months after the execution of King Louis XVI, which left France, for the first time in over a thousand years, without a central monarch. The unstable government struggled to handle the rising pressures from surrounding countries which were eager to invade France. France was essentially drowning in its own chaos, and Maximilien Robespierre recognized this as a dangerous weakness and spearheaded the Reign of Terror.

On September 5th Maximilien Robespierre, along with the rest of his Jacobins party, declared that terror would “order the day,” rather than civil government. Worried about the constant uprisings across the French countryside within the revolution and the hostile armies surrounding France, Robespierre announced the immediate new rule where harsh actions would be taken against those suspected of being enemies of the state. The promises of harsh actions culminated in over  50,000 people being executed by guillotine over a ten-month period.

During the Reign of Terror, the group in power was the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee exercised “virtual dictatorial control” over all aspects of the government and operations of society. I have to insert the obvious hypocrisy which surrounds the name as this so-called  Committee of “Public Safety,” ordered countless unwarranted executions under the premise of halting the counter revolution. Those in power at the time believed that the only way the future of the revolution was to be guaranteed was through harsh actions against all. However, this deep mistrust of the French public by those in power led to extreme measures being taken against ordinary citizens, thus beginning a mutual mistrust and hatred between the people and their government. What few realize is that it would be years until Napoleon Bonaparte would take power and begin to rebuild this deeply fractured relationship which would halt much of the progress of the revolution. This mistrust between the public and the government would ultimately be the downfall of Robespierre, the Committee, and ultimately this period. The Reign of Terror officially ended with the execution of Robespierre as a result of his conspiring behind the backs of his fellow Jacobins.

In an overview of these ten-months, few to no steps forward were taken in regards to the economy, rights of the citizens, or the issue of food scarcity, thus achieving none of the three primary issues in which started the whole revolution in the first place. It is safe to say that truly none of the original goals or motivations of the Reign of Terror were ever actually achieved, thus, pointing to the somewhat obvious fact that in terms of the revolution, it was an outright failure.

Source:

“Reign of Terror.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., 29 Aug. 2023, www.britannica.com/event/Reign-of-Terror.