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As depicted in the illustration above, a dilemma such as saving the world would certainly be considered an ill-defined problem. This is because a problem of this magnitude would not have its goals or steps clearly laid out. Additionally it is highly likely, or at least we would hope so for the sake of mankind, that there may be more than one approach or correct answers to solve the problem. Although, I believe that Einstein brings up a valid point, which is that in order to effectively solve a problem it is imperative to first fully understand exactly what the nature of the obstacle(s) is that is in the way of the goal. (Penn State, n.d.)

In the article Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles, Cherry (2016) writes about challenges that make problem solving difficult, which are similar to the barriers outlined in the lesson 13 commentary. According to Cherry, we are presented with a host of problems in our lives each day. These problems can range from minor issues such as, which route to take to work to avoid morning rush hour traffic to much larger issues like developing a five-year plan for your life and career path. In cognitive psychology, the act of problem solving is a mental process one uses to identify, analyze and find answers (Cherry, 2016) when it is not obvious how to overcome the obstacles that prevent you from achieving a goal, otherwise known as a problem (Goldstein, 2015).

The mental processes that are work during problem solving include; recognizing the problem, making a mental representation of the problem, considering the pertinent information applicable to the problem, identifying various facets of the problem and lastly describing or labeling it.  Problem solving strategies may include; algorithms or a step-by step process to generate the correct answer (ex: mathematical formula), heuristics or a mental “rule of thumb” that may be applicable to certain scenarios but do not guarantee a correct solution, trial and error that is similar to the generate and test method described in the lesson where you try different solutions to see what works and insight in which a problem is similar to something you dealt with previously, like an analogy. (Cherry, 2016)

The obstacles to problem solving in which we encounter are mental set, functional fixedness, irrelevant or misleading information and Cherry also adds in assumptions.  Mental set occurs when we only refer to solutions we have used in the past rather than attempting to identify new ideas that may be more effective. Functional fixedness is when we perceive problems in their usual manner that interferes with our ability to quickly solve the issue. The lesson indicates several examples of people failing to think of ways to use objects other than their primary or common purpose. Misleading information can lead to faulty solutions, which makes it important to have accurate and relevant information during the problem solving process. Lastly, assumptions regarding constraints can hinder the ability of a person to produce viable solutions. (Cherry, 2016)

So whether you are attempting to solve a math problem, a riddle or saving the world it is useful to keep in mind the strategies to effect problem solving while being aware of the obstacles you may face to finding an effective solution.

 References

Cherry, K. (2016, August 31). Problem-Solving Strategies and Obstacles. Retrieved November 19, 2016 from https://www.verywell.com/problem-solving-2795008

Goldstein, E. B. (2015). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Penn State World Campus (n.d.). Lesson 13: Problem Solving. Retrieved November 19, 2016 from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1804143/modules/items/21169401

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Our course text defines attention as, “the ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations” and selective attention as, “attending to one thing while ignoring others” (Goldstein, 2015 p. 86-87).  The world is full of information in which our brains have the capability to process, but there are limitations to how much we can understand at a time or processing capacity.  Selective attention is the way in which we choose stimuli from our environment for further processing and disregard other existing stimuli.  In doing this, we prioritize the stimuli we are exposed to by processing the relevant information and filtering out messages that are absent in higher-level characteristics.  However, in the lesson four commentary we also learned about the cocktail party phenomenon, which can occur in social settings where you may be focusing your attention on a conversation you are engaged in, but you hear someone across the room say your name and it also grabs your attention.  This means that we do not always filter out information that is not attended, especially when the information is extremely familiar or personal to us like our name. (Penn State, n.d.)

According to Psychology Today (n.d.), attention span is the amount of time we spend on a task before we start to lose our focus or “zone out.”  I completed an online attention span test and scored 36 out of 100, which means I have a short attention span. I have difficulty maintaining my focus on tasks when completing them, which is accurate. My results further state that people with short attention spans have a tendency to be disorganized, which is not accurate in my case. I also do not struggle with meeting most of my deadlines or paying bills on time, which is also typically characteristic of short attention span. However, I frequently run late to my appointments.  It is recommended that people who have an inability to pay attention for extended periods should consult with a psychologist to be evaluated for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). I have never been formally evaluated for ADD, but I do frequently zone out or day dream and I have a slight family history of the disorder. (Psychology Today, n.d.)

In the age of technology, more specifically our smart phones that keep us vehemently connected to the outside world, our attention span is shrinking.  According to a Canadian media consumption survey conducted by Microsoft, the average attention span is eight seconds. This number has decreased from twelve seconds in the year 2000.  This means that humans now have an attention span that is less than a goldfish!  The New York Times article, “The Eight-Second Attention Span,” defines attention span as, “the amount of concentrated time on a task without becoming distracted,” (Egan, 2016 para. 4).  According to Microsoft CEO, Satya Nadella, human attention will be a scarce commodity in the future. The article further suggests that our digital devices have in fact “rewired” our brains.  We use our smart phones during many of our daily tasks, especially during periods of waiting or downtime such as standing in line.  When we are using our cell phones to catch the score of last night’s game, see what’s going on in world news or engaging in social media, we are limited in the amount of other stimuli we can process in our environment, because we are distracted.  (Egan, 2016)

If you are concerned about our shrinking attention span, don’t worry too much.  Timothy Egan writes that all is not lost.  He has put together a plan for himself to address his shortening attention span that includes gardening and deep reading (Egan, 2016).  There are no scientific studies to support a correlation between these activities and attention span. The idea behind this is more to take a step away from technological devices and engage in tasks that stimulate brain activity or hobbies you find enjoyable.  Neuroscience most likely has other notions about methods to expand or preserve one’s attention span or processing capacity that are empirically supported.  However, in the meantime I suggest you find what works for you and try to limit excessive use of your smartphone.

References

Egan, T. (2016, January 22). The Eight-Second Attention Span. The New York Times. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/22/opinion/the-eight-second-attention-span.html

Goldstein, E. B. (2015). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Penn State World Campus (n.d.) Lesson 4: Attention. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1804143/modules/items/21169306

Psychology Today (n.d.). Attention Span Test. Retrieved October 16, 2016, from http://psychologytoday.tests.psychtests.com/bin/transfer

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How do we perceive the world around us? As humans, are we capable of processing the stimuli in our environment objectively to accurately depict what we see and experience? The occipital lobe is located in the rear section of the brain as part of the cerebral cortex and its primary role is to make sense of visual information (Freberg, 2016).  The temporal lobe, also located in the cerebral cortex, is responsible for the processing of auditory information (Freberg, 2016). However, once our brain processes the information coming from visual or auditory stimuli, what happens next regarding our thoughts and perceptions?

In the article Why We Cannot Perceive the World Objectively, Michalko (2011) writes that people ultimately see what they expect to see.  Notice I did not use the term, “wish.” As he goes on to state that the perception of our environment is not based on “wishful thinking.” Perception is an active process where our senses receive input from stimuli around us that then builds our own reality (Michalko, 2011). We engage in this process in order to understand and be aware of our environment. The way we perceive things is influenced by our past experiences as well as the stimuli received by our receptors. Michalko also emphasizes that perception can be altered by the observers expectations or their presumptions. There was an experimental study conducted that was highlighted in the article in which playing cards were shown to a group of participants, some normal other containing red spades and black hearts. Participants were able to identify the normal cards faster and more accurately than those that were manipulated. The author maintains that this is due to the fact that patterns of expectation are deeply ingrained within us and that they continue on even when we are presented with stimuli that contradict our typical perception schema. For this reason, objectivity in the way we perceive our environment can be difficult to achieve. (Michalko, 2011)

Our retina, which contains our seeing receptors, is located in the back of our eye.  However, these images that are projected are not clearly defined. They must be interpreted by our brain. Bottom-up processing involves the steps of the image being transmitted from the eye to the visual receiving area of our brain. Top down processing, however involves using what we know about our environment to interpret the information that we perceive. In the nineteenth century, physicist Helmholtz developed the theory of unconscious inference. This suggests that perceptions are formed from unconscious assumptions in which we suppose about our environment. Later Gestalt psychologists, who as we previously learned developed the concept of “the whole being greater than the sum of its parts,” took a different approach to the theory of perception than Helmholtz.  Gestalt psychologists came up with a list of principles. They agreed that perception may be based on experience, but took it a step further by stating that built-in principles may trump one’s previous knowledge or understanding of their environment. (Goldstein, 2015)

The fact that people’s perceptions align with their expectations is more important to them than simply what they want to believe.  These expectations people have can come from many different sources and develop over time based on past experiences or social norms. According to Michalko (2011), we are programmed to pay more attention to certain stimuli or information received and then interpret it based on our own personal history. He further stresses those perceptions are also sometimes influenced by the context of situational factors. These patterns of expectation that eventually develop then teach us what to see and how to understand the world around us. (Michalko, 2011)

Now look at the picture at the top of this post. Do you know what it is? This is an example from a perception exercise from Michalko’s article. Did you see the face of a cow in this black and white pattern? The purpose here is to illustrate how perceptions can be formed based off of minimal information, i.e. the cow face (Michalko, 2011). As I learned from the article, once our perception schema is formed, it can be very difficult to change without a great deal of effort and contradictory evidence. I believe that as human beings we attempt to be objective in our perceptions. However, our past experiences and pre-existing schemas can at times limit these perceptions to make achieving objectivity challenging at best. So the next time you are presented with an unfamiliar stimuli, take a minute to process what you are really looking at.

References

Freberg, L. (2016). Discovering Behavioral Neuroscience: An Introduction to Biological Psychology, 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning.VitalBook file.

Goldstein, E. B. (2015). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.). Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Michalko, M. (2011, November 13). Why We Cannot Perceive the World Objectively — Sott.net. Retrieved September 10, 2016, from https://www.sott.net/article/237883-Why-We-Cannot-Perceive-the-World-Objectively