Two years ago, I got a phone call from a college friend which brought the devastation of working memory loss into painful reality.  At that time, I was told that my former college roommate, now only thirty years old, had been hospitalized after being found in the final life threatening stages of a battle with alcoholism.  Once she regained consciousness and was physically stabilized, it was clear that permanent brain damage remained.  This was my introduction to the condition known as Korsakoff’s psychosis/syndrome, a result of chronic and severe alcoholism.  I was unaware of this sad syndrome until my old friend B was diagnosed with it.

Karsakoff’s syndrome is the second stage of a brain disorder known as Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, a result of vitamin B1 (thiamine) insufficiency.  The thiamine deficiency in alcoholics is a result of their characteristic poor diet which is low in vitamins, as well alcohol’s interference with thiamine absorption in the intestines.  Karsakoff’s syndrome is characterized by a person’s inability to form new memories, otherwise known as anterograde amnesia.  (Goldstein, 149)  Anterograde amnesia is often coupled with retrograde amnesia, which is memory loss affecting past events.  In Beth’s case, she experienced symptoms of both retrograde and anterograde amnesia (global amnesia).  She had some recall of past events and semantic memories but no retention at all of new memories.  Karsakoff’s psychosis results from bilateral lesions of the medial portion of the temporal lobe, specifically the hippocampus, and widespread loss of nerve cells. (Myers)

Korsakoff’s syndrome causes deficits in declarative memory in most patients, but keeps implicit spatial, verbal, and procedural memory functioning intact. (alzheimers.org)  This was clear in Beth’s case.  Inside her hospital room, she saw and could recognize her friends and family.  She held on a conversation with all the same nuances she had twelve years before, asking all the “right” questions.  However, her deficits in declarative memory made functional conversation impossible.  Our conversation two weeks after of hospitalization included normal dialogue from her such as,

“How are your parents?”

“What is new?”

“You have four kids, I don’t believe it!”

However, conversational norms ended there.  Every five minutes or so, the same good natured questions would repeat…

“How are your parents?”

“What is new?”

And then she would react as though these responses she had heard five minutes before were new and B would reply,

“You have four kids, I don’t believe it!”

Additionally it was difficult to have a twice sided conversation because she could answer no questions about present circumstances and very few about recent long term circumstances.

“Was she still working at her last job?”  She couldn’t remember.

“Who visited you this morning?”  She wasn’t quite sure.

She would start to tell a story and stop abruptly, searching for information that was clearly lost to her.  You could see that she was frustrated when she could not retrieve a memory.  This made sense, because of all of our friends in college B was the brightest and most knowledgeable, and had been able to hold an interesting conversation with anyone.

Korsakoff’s syndrome is not curable. (alzheimers.org) The brain damage done is irreversible and perhaps the conversation above sheds some light on how difficult it is for people with this condition to function on their own.  B cannot remember if she has had food to eat, what day it is, turned off the stove, or has taken her medication.  Many of the small things that we need to remember to make life as we know it possible involve being able to create and retain new memories, without them, we are rendered helpless.  Like most others with this condition, B will be institutionalized for the rest of her life because her inability to form new memories makes life on her own impossible.

WORKS CITED

Goldstein, B. E. (2011). Cognitive Psychology Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, Third Edition.  Belmont, CA:Wadsworth.

Myers, Catherine E.  (2006) Memory Loss and the Brain. (Web) Retrieved 14 Mar 2014 from             http://www.memorylossonline.com. 

What is Karsoff’s Syndrome. (2012) Alzheimer’s Society. (Web) Retrieved 14 Mar 2014 from             http://www.alzheimers.org.uk.

We so often take for granted what is right in front of us.  One common way this happens in society today is through the use of cameras that we think will help us to remember important events or objects.  Yet what if that photo actually impaired your ability to remember the object or scene you are photographing?  According the Dr. Linda Henkel, it just might.  To understand how this is possible I have taken a look at an article about Dr. Linda Henkel’s research with our lessons on attention and memory in mind, as well as describing some happenings in my life that illustrate this phenomenon.

In the article, we learned that Dr. Linda Henkel speculates that people are not able to fully attend to what is in front of them because they are instead attending to the action of taking a photo when this occurs.  It is almost as if we expect the technology to do the remembering for us.  Dr. Henkel tested this theory, which she calls the “photo-taking impairment effect,” by having a group of students take photos of different exhibits in a museum and then seeing how much they could actually remember about the objects the following day.  The results seemed to support her theory very strongly and the findings were able to be replicated later on.

It is hard for us to say with certainty which theory of attention is correct, as it seems to change along with the circumstance.  In my opinion, Dr. Linda Henkel’s work seems to coincide with Broadbent’s model the most.  This would mean that information that is to be paid attention to is filtered out very early in the process.  It seems to me that when you “know” you will remember something because you have a camera, your brain puts a stricter filter on what you actually pay attention to because you feel as if you can look at the photo later and easily recall the experience. It also occurs to me that this attentional filter would be located right in between the sensory memory and the short-term memory if this is the case.  We do not feel the need to recall the information or process it any further, so we simply let it slip of out our minds rather than store it in the STM and rehearse it so it can move on the long-term memory.

I can relate this to an experience in my own life, which really makes me feel as if Dr. Henkel is on to something.  Last June my little sister got married.  I was her maid of honor.  While we were at her bridal shower, I focused on taking a lot of photographs so she could remember her shower.  Now looking back on the shower, I find I have a hard time remembering many details such as what we ate, what the cake look liked, and what gifts I watched her open.  It seems that I took up so much of my attentional capacity with the photo-taking that I was unable to fully attend to anything else that day.

In conclusion, I feel that Dr. Henkel is really on the right track with her theory of “photo-taking impairment effect.”  I hate to think that all the years I have been taking photos of things I wanted to remember were actually spent helping myself to forget.  However, with that in mind I plan to be more conscious of the world around me each day and never let anything pass me by simply because I feel the need to photograph it.  Instead I think I will first fully attend to the person/object/situation without a camera and once I have taken it all in, I will then take a photograph if I still feel it necessary.

Works Cited:

Goldstein, E. Bruce. Cognitive Psychology. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Knapton, Sarah. “Taking Photographs Ruins the Memory, Research Finds.” The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, 10 Dec. 2013. Web. 15 Mar. 2014. <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/10507146/Taking-photographs-ruins-the-memory-research-finds.html>.

What is your earliest memory?  Was it traumatic?  Does it involve an influential figure or monumental event in your life?  According to our textbook the definition of memory is, “the processes involved in retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills, after the original information is no longer present.”

My Dad had passed away three months shy of my third birthday. I have three distinctive memories surrounding his death.  In the first one, he was balancing my bottle on his stomach and every time he took a breath my bottle would fall to the side and I remember laughing over and over like it was the funniest thing I had ever seen.  The second is my Mom standing over his casket and placing a tender kiss to his cheek leaving an imprint of her red lipstick.  The third is of me and my sister in her bedroom and as we sat upon her bed I had ask her where Daddy was and through fallen tears she had explained to me that he went to heaven.  I had never talked about my memories or asked if anybody else remembers them actually happening.  The memories are mine and I don’t want to share them or realize that they never happened although I often wonder if they are actually true or if somewhere between then and now I had heard stories from someone or just made them up to cope with not knowing personally who my Dad was.  I can remember specifics such as the exact color of my Mom’s lipstick and the tears running down my sister’s face.  I remember him being shirtless as my bottle bounced off of the black couch in our den.  I don’t remember what triggered the memories.  They have just always simply been there.

The memories are episodic, which means that they are from personal experience and allows me to travel back in time to when the events took place (Goldstein 2011).  I think about these memories quite often as to not forget.  I don’t have flashbacks or anxiety when thinking about these events.  I cherish them, although they were not a pleasant time.  They give me a sense of peace knowing that even though my Dad isn’t here I have something small and significant to hold on to.

References

Goldstein, B. (2011). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience, 3rd Edition. Wadsworth, Inc.

Concussions are a controversial topic in the equestrian community. Participation in high risk sports increases the chance of injury. A fall from two feet can cause permanent brain damage: horses elevate riders eight feet or more above the ground.  A human skull can be shattered by an impact of 4-6 mph: horses are capable of galloping at 40 mph. Head injuries account for approximately 60% of equestrian related deaths, Despite these overwhelming statistics, many riders still choose to refrain from wearing a helmet.

Last week Grand Prix dressage rider Silva Martin was hospitalized following a freak accident and sustained a serious head injury. Many argue that only top-level competitors who are jumping need to wear a helmet. However, Silva was only teaching a lesson off of the horse when it tripped and fell on her. Luckily she was wearing a helmet, but was still knocked unconscious and suffered a seizure.

Immediately after the accident, Silva had been drifting in and out of consciousness and was having trouble moving her left arm and leg. The following day she showed some signs of improvement but remained in the same condition. However, the bleeding and swelling on her brain was also affecting her eyesight. Based on these symptoms, it appears that the back of Silva’s brain suffered the most damage. The cerebellum controls movement is located below the cerebral cortex and above the brain stem. Similarly, the occipital lobe which is responsible for vision is also located at the back of the brain.

According to the text, amnesia caused by trauma or brain damage can affect both the ability to form new memories  and the ability to remember events that occurred prior to the injury. In an interview, her husband said that for some reason she thinks that it’s 1988, but she knows who he is! Silva knows her name and is able to squeeze the doctors hand but other things aren’t quite correct. Typically retrograde amnesia from concussions is less severe for remote memories, those that occurred long ago. This could explain Silva’s “selective” memory.

At this point it is too soon to know if she will suffer any longterm effects from the accident. The doctors are optimistic that she will make a recovery but the rate of improvement is very slow. As time passes, consolidation stabilizes memory for the event so it is less likely to be affected by trauma. This process transforms new memories (which are fragile) to a more permanent state where they are resistant to disruption. Consolidation involves a reorganization in the nervous system which occurs at two levels: synaptic and systems. The first occurs at synapses and happens rapidly over a period of minutes. Systems consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a longer time scale (weeks, months, or years).

My husband works the evening shift and, for a while, was getting home around the same time every night.  We have a 5-year-old English Lab, Hershey, who has truly become a “Daddy’s boy” and is always anxiously awaiting the arrival of his human at the end of the night.  He seems to know exactly what time that is, too!  It began some time ago, first with seeing Daddy come through the door every night. Then, whenever I would hear the garage door opening and closing, I would say “Daddy’s home!” and before the door to the house would open, Hershey would be right there, wagging his tail in anticipation.  Eventually, he picked up on the sound of the garage door opening and would run to the door before I even said anything.  Now, as the “magic hour” approaches, he runs to the door and waits — even before Daddy has pulled up in his truck — watching the door intently.  I’ve witnessed this development blossom over time and have been amazed. I couldn’t help but wonder if animals really do have some sort of an “internal clock”, and if their cognitive processes really are similar to that of humans (and if so, to which degree).

Obviously, there had to be some element of priming involved in Hershey’s associating the opening of the door with my husband’s arrival, as well as the later association with the sound of the garage door. Over time, he had learned that these sounds were the precursor to Daddy walking through the door. But what’s behind his ability to know that it’s time to head to the door and wait, without the prior cues of the sound of the garage door or the entry door opening? And how is it that my husband can walk outside to take out the garbage and return a few short minutes later, walk in through that same door, yet Hershey doesn’t get excited like he would had Daddy been gone for 9 hours?

In searching for answers I found there isn’t very much information out there, however it is said that animals do not appear to have an episodic memory like we humans do.  Using our episodic memory, we are able to engage in mental time travel and develop a sense of time perception by relating events to things that have occurred in the past – mentally estimating that an hour has passed versus a minute, and the ability to differentiate between morning and night. We can plan ahead and anticipate future events based on our recall of past events.  In addition, episodic memory allows us to recall past events with great detail – remembering the who, what, where, when and why of these events.  There has been some debate over whether or not animals live only in the present, hence lacking a sense of future time or events. 

One particular study involving both pigeons and rats spawned this conclusion. When given the choice between an immediate reward or a future reward, the animals opted for the immediate reward — despite the immediate reward being a smaller one and the future reward being a larger one (McGrath, n.d.). While we humans have the ability to learn that a larger reward will be available if we wait it out, animals cannot concieve this.

So, if animals cannot plan the future, how does Hershey know it’s time for Daddy to come home? Research has shown that although animals may lack episodic memory and therefore cannot recall explicit details of a past event, they can still estimate how much time has passed since a particular event has occurred (“Do dogs understand the concept of time?”, n.d.). They can tell that it has been a while since their owner has been gone (at work all day versus five minutes of taking out the trash). Some say it isn’t just memory involved here, though; that this is also due to an inner biological clock – that hormones, neural activity, and changes in body temperature are responsible, in much the same way they control an animal’s ability to know when it’s time to eat (McGrath, n.d.).

But cognitively, animals can still be conditioned to expect a reward at certain time intervals, which is exactly what Pavlov found in one of his famous experiments. By giving food to a dog at certain times, 30 minutes apart, the dog eventually began to salivate a few minutes before each future feeding (Roberts, 2002). Going back to my earlier mention of priming, this appears to be Hershey’s case as well.  My husband doesn’t always get home at the same time every night now like he used to, but the “magical hour” has long been ingrained in Hershey’s mind. When that time approaches, he knows. He’s ready. If he happens to be outside, he’ll start pacing, wanting to come inside so he can head to the door. And if he’s inside, that door is where he’ll be. Sitting, waiting…until once again, Daddy’s home!

References

Roberts, W. A. (2002). Are Animals Stuck in Time?, 128(3), 473–489. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.128.3.473

Do dogs understand the concept of time? : Dog Guide: Animal Planet. (n.d.). Retrieved March 15, 2014, from http://www.animalplanet.com/pets/do-dogs-understand-the-concept-of-time.htm

McGrath, J. (n.d.). How do dogs perceive time?: Animal Planet. Retrieved March 14, 2014, from http://www.animalplanet.com/pets/dogs-perceive-time.htm

Forgetful Me

Earl Culvey

Recently, I took an exam and felt I did well.  Unfortunately, my grade did not reflect that feeling of confidence.  Since returning to school after several years away I have always done well and maintained a respectable GPA.  I was a bit perplexed and distraught over this grade.  So I pondered on what may have changed.  I completed all readings and assignments, Check. I studied hard, Check. I followed directions, check.  Hmm, confounded.  Well, then it hit me.  Although I studied hard, I studied differently.  Normally, I do most of my studying at work on my downtime, which normally broke up my studying into short spurts.  Now, after starting a new job, I don’t have much time at work to study, so I began to “cram” late at night at home.  Sometimes, I spend five to six hours a night in the books.  And after some of our recent readings in Cognitive Psychology, it dawned on me, personal experience is a much better teacher than any book.  The spacing effect is a valuable psychological phenomenon for any student to be familiar with.

The spacing effect is termed after research showing that studying done in several short sessions is superior to studying in one long “cram” session.  (Goldstein, 2011)  The spacing effect has a long history of research and study in psychology, starting in Ebbinghaus’ classic memory studies in 1885.  (Susser and McCabe, 2013; Son and Simon, 2012)  Ebbinghaus’ first explanation says, “…with any considerable number of repetitions a suitable  distribution of them over a space of time is decidedly more advantageous than the massing of them at a single time.”  (1885) Since, 1885 many research studies have shown that given the same amount of time breaking your studying into multiple short periods is superior to massed learning.  (Susser and McCabe; 2012)

So, what is the mechanism for the spacing effect?  Son and Simon reviewed a number of studies and found several mechanisms and theories.  In reviewing a 1970 study by Bjork and Allen, Son and Simon stated the mechanism appeared to be better encoding at study trial 2 after an intervening task.  The intervening task was varied on its degree of  difficulty during the study and also showed some evidence for the later theory of desirable difficulty. (2012)  They defined desirable difficulty, “where the more difficult it is to retrieve the item at second trial (as a result of longer elapsed time since original study), the more easily that item would be retrieved again.”  (Son and Simon; 2012)  Another theory they discussed is the deficient-processing theory, which hypothesizes that during mass study we do not process the incoming stimuli thoroughly.  Otherwise, spaced study allows us to pay closer attention to the stimulus and hence better memory formation.  (Son and Simon; 2012)

What does this mean to you and me?  Since, research has proven that spaced study (study for short periods, multiple times) is superior to massed study (study for one long period) for long-term retention. (Son and Simon, 2012;  Susser and McCabe, 2013; Goldstein, 2011)  It would be beneficial for us to use this phenomenon to our advantage.  Susser and McCabe, reported a 2004 study that showed a moderate positive correlation between metacognitive  ability and cognitive strategy use.  Otherwise, stating “that individuals who are better at monitoring and adapting their strategies tend to utilize more deeper processing methods of learning.” (Susser and McCabe, 2013)  Or the better you are at adapting your study habits the better chance of  “deeper” learning and retention.

So, we have briefly discussed the long history of the spacing effect and some of its potential mechanisms.  We have only even barely scratched the surface of the research available and the numerous off-shoot topics connected to spaced study.  Research has shown the benefits of this phenomena to long-term retention.  I encourage you to further explore and use this phenomena to your advantage.  I have used this in the past, although admittedly, not intentionally.  When my study habits changed so did the outcome of those habits.  Again, adding some anecdotal evidence to the large volume of empirical evidence available.

References

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedchtnis. Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Leipzig: Duncker & Humblot; The English edition is Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory. A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Goldstein, E. (2011). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Son, L. K., & Simon, D. A. (2012). Distributed learning: Data, metacognition, and educational implications. Educational Psychology Review, 24(3), 379-399. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9206-y

Susser, J. A., & McCabe, J. (2013). From the lab to the dorm room: Metacognitive awareness and use of spaced study. Instructional Science, 41(2), 345-363. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11251-012-9231-8

With all of the cold weather we’ve been facing recently, I’ve found that there really is nothing better than curling up on the couch with a good book and a cup of hot cocoa. Whipped cream, marshmallows, cinnamon; no matter how you enjoy it, hot cocoa is a great way to keep warm and de-stress on a chilly winter evening. But, did you know that it is also good for your brain?

A recent study done at Harvard Medical School shows that there may be a connection between the antioxidant flavanol found in hot chocolate and healthy circulation in the working areas of the brain. Although more research is needed, they believe cognitive function, and therefore memory, can be improved by regular cocoa consumption in elderly patients with vascular damage. The scientists determined the effects of the hot cocoa by measuring performance on cognitive exams as well as neurovascular coupling.

Neurovascular coupling is the relationship between neural activity and cerebral blood flow. An increase in neural activity leads to an increase in blood flow to that part of the brain. As we get older, blood flow decreases which contributes to a decline in cognitive functions. Poor vascular health is a risk factor for dementia in the elderly.

Cocoa has been determined several times before to improve circulation and lower blood pressure, but this is the first study showing how improved vascular health can also help to prevent memory decline as we age. The scientists admit that much more work is needed in order to prove the link between cocoa, vascular health, and cognitive functioning; but, wouldn’t it be nice if the only thing standing between you and a better memory was a daily delicious cup of hot cocoa?

References:

Hurwitz, S., Salat, D.H., Sorond, F.A., & et al. (2013, August 7). “Neurovascular coupling, cerebral white matter integrity, and response to cocoa in older people.” Neurology. Retrieved from http://www.neurology.org/content/early/2013/08/07/WNL.0b013e3182a351aa.full.html.

Paddock, C. (2013, August 8). “Hot chocolate may prevent memory decline.” Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/264551.

Dementia is a chronic disorder in the brain that can be diagnosed with symptoms of memory loss, personality changes and impaired reasoning. This can be caused from an injury or a brain disease, as well as simply old age. It is similar to Alzheimer’s but not quite as life-threatening. With Alzheimer’s, patients will survive but there is no cure, and chances are the disease will take their life, but that hasn’t been shown for Dementia patients. This disease, at the appropriate stage, requires full-time care and leaves people feeling empty.

In the article that I read, it discusses that Dementia is becoming more and more of an issue in today’s economy and people aren’t really aware of it. They want to increase funding for research and set a goal to have a cure by 2025. Health Secretary, Jeremy Hunt, said that “there is too little funding going into research.” Hunt also said, “It’s a big, big ambition to have. If we don’t aim for the stars we won’t land on the moon,” regarding the goal of 2025 to have a cure. The concern is that by 2050, 135 million people will be suffering from the disease which could be a huge downfall to individual’s lives.

I think the fact someone is trying to do something about the disease is awesome. My grandmother suffers from Dementia, and when they say it affects the whole family, it does. I’ve watched her personality change so much over the past 5 years. From happy-go-lucky to confused and mean. She asks a lot of questions, a lot of the same questions, often. She’ll forget the answer to the question she had just asked, therefore she needs to ask it again. She is very defensive in most cases. If you tell her that she is wrong, she gets very angry at you and sternly tells you that she is not wrong.

It’s coming to the point where we don’t want to leave her alone in her home because she doesn’t take care of herself. She’ll forget to eat unless someone is there to tell her to. In the rare occasion that she does decide to eat, we don’t want her to leave the over or stove on and then cause a fire. There are so many precautions that we are taking. My mom mom has 11 children, so they’ve created a schedule for her so someone is with her in the afternoon and night. So far it is working fairly well. She is picking up on it, which we didn’t want but I think she may be starting to realize that it’s necessary to have help and the extra company is always nice.

This article just really makes me happy, as someone in the economy, and as a granddaughter. Dementia is a serious disease, and not many people know about it I feel like. I think it’s great that people are finally coming together to help fight it. Unfortunately, this cure will not help my grandmother, but if it succeeds, it will help so many others and for that I am grateful.

Sources:

http://www.bbc.com/news/health-25318194

https://www.google.com/#q=dementia+definition