We all used to watch Agent MacGyver construct the most elaborate plans and create the most amazing things from a roll of dental floss and a pack of matches to get out of some life threatening situation. How did he do that? How was he able to use such simplistic, everyday items and make them into just what he needed?  Well apparently he never suffered from a problem solving barrier known as Functional Fixedness. Functional Fixedness refers to a hindrance in problems solving capabilities that restricts a person’s representation of how an object can be used. In the person’s mind, an object is only meant for a specific purpose, not realizing that there could be potential for other uses. Basically, you get what you see.

The idea and concept of Functional Fixedness was first introduced by Norman Maier in 1931 when he presented the two string problem. The idea was given a person has two strings hanging from the ceiling, a pair of pliers and a chair they needed to try to connect the two strings together but the strings were not long enough to touch. What could they do? Well most people found it difficult to solve this problem. The solution was to connect the pliers to one of the strings and swing it like a pendulum to the other string and attach it to the other. Using the pliers for an unintended purpose does not cross the mind of many because of the functional fixedness problem; but we just pulled a MacGyver.

Another good example might be having a screw that needs to be finished putting into place but all you have is a piece of string and a coin. What do you do? Most people would spend time looking for a screwdriver (not to mention the appropriate kind of course, flat head, Philips). Here we have the Functional fixedness problem. What the person could do is use the coin to finish screwing it in. Overcoming this problem is not always easy, though some instances are easier than others.

For me, one case would be my phone. I use my phone as a mirror often because I do not carry an old style compact in my purse. I often need to check my braces to make sure I don’t have anything in them after eating or use it to check my hair. This is an example of overcoming functional fixedness because I am able to use something other than for its intended purpose. If I was having an issue with problem solving and functional fixedness I would not be able to use my phone in this manner because I would only see it as a phone.

Another example of overcoming functional fixedness I have used is after I was married I needed to press my flowers so I needed something heavy to put on them. I found a heavy book to put them in. Should I again, have an issue with problem solving and not be able to overcome functional fixedness I would not have been able to connect a book with my dilemma of pressing the flowers. However I was able to overcome it and pull a MacGyver once again.

Clearly there are much more complicated issues of problem solving and functional fixedness out there. Examples such as the candle problem in out text are slightly more time consuming and complicated to solve. Functional fixedness can be a real dilemma when solving problems; restructuring a problem in your mind is the key to figuring out a new way to overcome an obstacle and see an object as something other than the original intended use.

References:

Dunker, K. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58 (270)

Goldstein, E. Bruce. “Ch 12 – Problem Solving.” Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. 3rd ed. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. 324-57. Print.

Maier, N. R. (1931). Reasoning in humans: II. The solution of a problem and its appearance in consciousness, Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 12, 181-194

As a college student, we are often told that reading and rereading the material we are learning is a valuable asset to studying yet why do we try to remember what we studied only to forget at test time? Many classmates state that reading the lesson two to three times appears to be an effective method for them, yet how accurate is this statement? What exactly are the best study methods that will help ensure you remember what you learned? That is, what methods allow for highest level of encoding and retrieval? According to Goldstein, the following seven methods are the most useful: elaborate, generate and test, organize, taking breaks, match learning and testing conditions, and avoiding “illusions of learning.” What these methods are, and how they are best utilized in today’s learning environment are key factors to success.  Let us examine these concepts and the proof behind them and how they are shaping the educational system.

Too often we hear of students conducting all night cramming sessions for an exam, highlighting books or even attempting to memorize definitions (rehearsal). What we have learned however, is that these methods are not as useful as we think and focusing our energies differently may benefit us more. The previously mentioned study methods would fall under the illusions of learning; rereading and rehearsal only increases fluency in the material and ease of reading it, not actual understanding. Highlighting only helps if we review the material and use what has been highlighted to organize in a manner that creates better understanding. In order to truly understand material there must be more in depth understanding, which is where some of the other methods come into play. What is really interesting based on Goldstein’s concepts is that educational institutions appear to be acknowledging these ideas and altering the methods in which they are teaching and presenting information to students. With the ever increasing prices of textbooks, many professors are opting for less expensive means such as online tutoring systems and programs. Many of these programs are designed to learn from a student’s most effective method of learning and apply the future presentation of materials in that effective way.

The Goldstein’s idea of matching test conditions is the concept of recreating the conditions under which the original encoding took place. For instance, returning to the place where the encoding originally took place or recreating the circumstances that existed while encoding would be more beneficial to me than attempting recall under entirely different circumstances. For example, for an online course such as this, if I do my reading and homework in my bedroom at night with calming music playing in the background, this would be a more useful way for me to take my exam as well as it is more apt to signal better retrieval because I am in the original location of encoding and am under the same surrounding circumstances. Research such as that from Godden and Baddley or Grant show how recall under the same conditions tends to be much higher than that under different conditions, regardless of the actual conditions themselves (under water vs on land or noise vs no noise). We see this concept being put to use now with online learning, allowing the student to learn in whichever environment best suites them and allowing them to replicate this condition. When you use a classroom environment, students may be initially presented with the material in the classroom but their understanding of the material and review of it are not necessarily occurring under the same conditions. This may be one of the contributing factors to why many people are opting for online learning (besides convenience).

Another concept, generate and test, is the idea of generating material yourself by means of testing and self-generation as a method of encoding for better retrieval of information. Both exhibit higher rates of encoding and retrieval based on research by Roediger and Karpicke (testing effect experiment) and Salmeka and Graf (generation effect). The testing effect experiment utilized two groups; one that was tested on the material and the other allowed to reread material. Both groups were then asked to recall. The testing group showed a much higher recall performance than that of the rereading group. This idea goes back to the concept of rereading (illusion of learning) and its ineffectiveness. It is more beneficial to test oneself on material to improve overall recall and retrieval. This concept shows perhaps why professors use weekly quizzes to help students with encoding and retrieval by testing on the information shortly after it is reviewed. Perhaps needing to retrieve the information so soon after encoding will benefit the students in the long run. The generation effect focuses on again two groups; one asked to read the paired words, the other asked to generate paired words with one word already supplied. The group that generated paired words was able to reproduce a higher rate of words than the reading group. The thought behind this is that it requires an active role to generate the pairs therefore there is a stronger level of encoding occurring which can generate a higher retrieval rate. Many of the online programs used for learning now emphasize this method. Giving the student several ways to participate in the learning process besides reading can improve encoding. For instance, our cognitive psychology book has what are called CogLabs that we can use to help us apply what we are learning to self-administered experiments. By doing this we are encouraging learning through testing and generating; helping ourselves become engaged in the material and produce better encoding and retrieval.

Organizing information can come in many methods however grouping appears to be a highly effective one. When organizing information it must be more proactive and self-generating rather than simply note taking by the book. Researchers such as Bower used methods like the organizational trees to show how creating small groups to organize information increased encoding and later retrieval. When people are able to group information together they are more easily able to recall it later. An example of the opposite is the balloon passage. This passage is extremely difficult to follow, let alone remember because there seems to be no rhyme or reason to it, strictly randomness. However once we see the illustration that accompanies it, the passage makes more sense and becomes slightly easier to recall. Why is that? This idea may also be linked to elaboration. The image gives more meaning, more elaboration of the passage allowing us to group and link some of the passage information to the photo. Both of these methods are not only effective but are being used more often in the learning environment. Take for example Rosetta Stone and learning a language. The words are shown, the word is pronounced, but an image of the words meaning is displayed giving the learner more to connect. Since learning a new language is a difficult task, having these several different concepts put together is more helpful to the end user. Often times these systems also incorporate the idea of organization by presenting the material in organized sections, such as outdoor activities, household, clothing, etc. As someone who has studied languages it is effective when grouping and organization such as this is used.

Finally, taking breaks is important to encoding, retrieval and overall studying. Attempting to cram your brain with knowledge in one sitting doesn’t create better encoding. Research has shown that sessions known as the spacing effect are more beneficial; short study sessions. This concept and student learning appear to be coexisting these days. Before, it seemed that classroom learning was focused on sending numerous hours in the classroom and being taught dryly from a textbook. Now, we see more online learning, shorter class times, variation in methods used to teach and more. These methods all appear to be making a difference in the level of encoding and optimization of retrieval. We even see some schools that are focusing learning entirely onto ipads and computers for high school students (and younger grade levels) allowing the students to learn at their own pace which is proving to be more effective. Many students learn better and retain more information in small increments of time.

Education and learning are on the edge of a new frontier. Perhaps taking into account these encoding and retrieval methods the educational system has finally pinpointed ways to best present material to students for optimal learning and deeper processing. Giving students more effective means of learning (such as online programs) and not to mention giving teachers better means to helping students on a more individualized basis is enhancing encoding and improving retrieval, which in the long run is benefiting everyone. Remember the next time you are trying to learn something these best kept secrets of studying: elaborate, generate and test, organize, taking breaks, match learning and testing conditions, and avoiding “illusions of learning.” Use these to your benefit so next time you take a test you aren’t telling yourself, “I knew it yesterday!”. Figure out what works best for you and apply it. Reading a book can only do some much for you; it’s like trying to fit a square peg into a round hole. If you are able to encode better by means of organization, simply reading and highlighting isn’t going to benefit you at all.

Goldstein, E. Bruce. “Ch 7 – Long Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval.”Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. 3rd ed. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. 171-200. Print.

Humans exhibit many learned and conditioned behaviors throughout their lives, some more prevalent than others. Some of these behaviors seem to be biologically engrained and enhanced over time where others appear to be strictly learned. John Watson and Ivan Pavlov both mainstreamed the concept of Classical Conditioning. According to Goldstein, classical conditioning is the pairing of a previously natural occurring stimulus with another stimulus to incur changes in the overall response to the prior neutral stimulus. (Goldstein, 2011) Quite the confusing description but let us take a closer look at how Pavlov and Watson utilized this method to come to conclusions about human learning and behaviors and how this can be relevant.

Ivan Pavlov was famous for his experiment commonly known as ‘Pavlov’s Dog,” where he presented food to a dog, the uncontrolled stimulus (UCS), which in turn caused the dog to salivate, the uncontrolled response (UCR). After time, Pavlov began ringing a bell in concurrence with the presentation of the food to the dog, the controlled stimulus (CS). The dog continued to salivate at the sight of the food. At a point, Ivan began ringing the bell without presenting the food to the dog yet the dog was still recorded as salivating at the sound of the bell, the controlled response (CR). The dog now associated the bell ringing with food presentation; he was conditioned to respond the same way to the bell as to the presentation of the food.

Watson conducted a somewhat similar experiment with a 9 month old boy named Albert. This experiment became known as the “Little Albert Experiment.” (Goldstein, 2011) Little Albert responded well to a rat and displayed no negative feelings towards the animal as it moved towards him. The rat moving towards Albert is considered the uncontrolled stimulus (UCS) and his positive response to the rat is considered the unconditioned response (UCR) as his feelings are naturally occurring. Watson began by making a loud noise anytime the rat came close to little albert, the controlled stimulus (CS), startling him. After time, when little albert saw the rat move towards him, the uncontrolled stimulus (UCS), he would crawl away as fast as he could, the controlled response (CR). So what we have here is the removal of the controlled stimulus, the loud noise, but over time being startled by the noise was associated with negative feelings and the rat moving towards him. Albert was conditioned to dislike or be frightened of the rat because of something else frightening him at the same time he would see the rat.

A similar example can be seen for classical conditioning in regards to male and female sexual arousal. We often see in our society that men are easily aroused and tend to be associated with high libido whereas women are more often seen as quite difficult to arouse and are typically associated with low libido. Why is this? Though minimal studies have been conducted on the subject, there are still findings that men “may be more biologically predisposed” to sexual arousal and sexual stimuli. (Hoffman, Janssen & Turner, 2004) A rare but perfectly logical theory is that men over time learn to be more sexually inclined compared to women for two main reasons; the presentation of orgasm on most all occasions when sexual stimulation is introduced, and again, that they are more biologically predisposed to higher levels of libido. Males, when presented with sexual stimulation by touch or sexual images (UCS) on almost every occasion respond with sexual arousal – erections – (UCR). When introduced to the controlled stimulus, the sex act itself or masturbation, then reach orgasm, thus closing the cycle of sexual excitation and release. Because of the hormones released during orgasm, over time males correlate sexual arousal with the feelings of orgasm and release, thus conditioning them to be sexually inclined.

Women on the other hand in this theory as less inclined towards sexual arousal or sexual stimulation because of the lack of sexual cycle completion. A woman who is sexually stimulated by touch or sexual images (UCS) then becomes aroused (UCR). The difference is that though women may seek the sexual act of intercourse or masturbation (CS), they are much less inclined to reach orgasm (CR) which restricts the introduction of the hormones released during the act, thereby not closing that cycle. This conditions women towards less arousal with introduction of the uncontrolled stimulus and resulting in a different uncontrolled response over time. This then results in lowered libido in women. One interesting fact that was found however in the study conducted by Hoffman and associates was the controlled response of women not to the sexually enticing images but to those of a handgun. (Hoffman, Janssen, Turner, 2004) Across the five conditioning groups used in the study, four of five had arousal to the gun image, with all four of those groups exhibiting a higher arousal level to the handgun image than the male abdomen images. What does this tell us about the differences in men to women? Perhaps that woman are more easily conditioned by something dangerous or powerful than to direct images of the opposite sex, like men.

Again, these are theories but explain a lot about why women often have lower sex drives (not including lower testosterone levels) but are less motivated to initiate sexual behavior. In a study conducted by Lalumiere and Quinsey (1998) it was found after pairing slides of partially nude females with highly arousing videos males reached arousal but in a similar study conducted by Plaud and Martini (1999), males were presented with a slide of a penny jar and partially nude females and still (after some conditioning) responded with arousal. How can a penny jar cause arousal? Over time the subjects associated the penny jar with the nude images that occurred after the penny jar images, thereby eliciting arousal. (Hoffman, Janssen, Turner, 2004)

Clearly more studies on the subject of classical conditioning in regards to sexual arousal and stimulation need to be conducted. Many of those that have already been done were conducted on animals; however they display similar findings in rat and bird behaviors and responses to certain controlled stimuli. (Hoffman, Janssen, Turner 2004) Are men really more apt to be sexually stimulated easier and more effortlessly conditioned or are women less prone to have a smaller sexual appetite? Are they based on the lack of positive conditioning related to lack of orgasm? Perhaps over time we will gain more insight into the differences with more controlled studies.

References:

Goldstein, Bruce E. “Ch 1 – Introduction to Cognitive Psychology.” Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. 3rd ed. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Hoffmann, Heather, Erick Janssen, and Stefanie L. Turner. “Classical Conditioning of Sexual Arousal in Women and Men: Effects of Varying Awareness and Biological Relevance of the Conditioned Stimulus.” Archives of Sexual Behavior 33.1 (2004): 43-53. ProQuest Psychology Journals. Web. 28 Jan. 2015.