There are two important processes involved in long-term memory. These processes are encoding and retrieval. Encoding involves receiving information that is then delivered into long-term memory. Retrieval involves accessing that information, so it can be used. Many memory problems are problems with retrieval. (Goldstein, 2017). The memories have been encoded, but we simply can’t get them out. An example of this is when we forget a phone number.

Retrieval cues help to assess encoded memories. Retrieval cues are words or other stimuli that allow us to remember these memories. (Goldstein, 2017).

These cues have helped me numerous times. One instance of this stands out above all the rest. I went to the mall one day several years ago. I entered a popular department store and walked towards the fragrance counter. I immediately smelled a cologne that contained hints of lavender and Douglas fir. It was Curve, a cologne that my first love had worn. All the times we had shared came flooding back to me then. I remembered things that I hadn’t in years.

How do smells become part of our long-term memory? Research has shown that the part of the olfactory brain called the piriform cortex is responsible for short term storage of olfactory memories, but researchers wanted to know if this area was responsible for long term storage as well. The latest research reveals that the piriform cortex is involved with storing those memories, but that this process only works if there is interaction with other areas of the brain. (“How Odours Are”, 2017).

During the research, scientists used electric impulses on a rat to stimulate processes that trigger olfactory memory encoding. The pulses varied in frequency and duration and followed protocols that induce long term memories in the hippocampus. However, it was found that these same protocols did nothing to induce these memories in the piriform cortex. Scientists that went on to stimulate the orbitofrontal cortex in the higher brain, and long-term memories were induced in the piriform cortex. This shows that the orbitofrontal cortex must provide instruction to the piriform cortex for long term storage of olfactory memories. (“How Odours Are”, 2017).

Olfactory memories depend on encoding and retrieval just like other types of memories. Retrieval codes assist in helping to assess these encoded memories. It is very interesting to know what parts of the brain are responsible for long term storage of these memories.

References

Goldstein, E.B. (2017). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience (4th edition). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning
How Odours Are Turned into Long-Term Memories. (2017, December 22). Retrieved from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2017-12-odours-long-term-memories.html

Explicit memory is long-term memory that is consciously recalled. It is further characterized as consisting of both semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is memory for facts while episodic memory is memory for specific personal experiences. (Goldstein, 2017.)

It has often been thought that both types of memory remain strong in our younger years and decline significantly as we get older. I remember working with dementia patients in the past. They had severe neurological decline. I assumed this was the norm as well.

Recent research by the University of the Basque Country attempts to dispute this belief. The study concludes that while elderly people tend to remember less specifics of distant facts than their younger counterparts, they still remember concrete information. It was also noted that mental decline occurs more in episodic memory than semantic memory. In some cases, semantic memory can even improve. (“Memory Loss Among”, 2015). The elderly do remember concepts they have learned about in the past but can have trouble recalling personal facts. The study also showed that older people remember skills they have learned such as driving. This involves procedural memory.

There are things that loved ones can do to help with age related episodic memory decline. A memory scrapbook is one such thing. This scrapbook can include photos as well as family history. One can research historical events that happened during the year that a loved one got married and include an article about this event with their marriage license. This cue may help an elderly loved one remember a personal experience.

Memory is very complex. It is normal to believe that it will decline completely as we grow older. However, this often is not the case. Research has shown otherwise. There are also things we can do to help with any age-related decline such as creating a memory scrapbook.

References
Goldstein, E.B. (2017). Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience (4th edition). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning

Memory loss among the elderly is lower than what was originally thought. (2015, June 5). Retrieved from http://www.apastyle.org/learn/faqs/web-page-no-author.aspx

Depression is a disorder that affects people of all ages and ethnicities. It is a topic that has been well studied in psychology. Both psychologists and neuroscientists have written volumes of literature on this topic. Antidepressant therapy remains the most popular treatment for Depression. However, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) has emerged as a possible treatment for this disorder.

Those with Depression exhibit a vast array of symptoms. These symptoms can include changes in appetite and sleep, trouble concentrating, lack of interest in normal activities, and feelings of hopelessness. There is no one cause for Depression. There are several predisposing factors that can contribute to the disorder. Trauma, life circumstances, and genetics are some of these factors. Research also suggests that changes in the brain can contribute to Depression. Imaging studies have shown that the frontal lobe of the brain becomes less active when a person is depressed (Depression,” n.d., para. 5). Diagnosis of depression involves the identification of depressive that last longer than two weeks.

As mentioned previously, antidepressant therapy remains the prescribed treatment for Depression. However, current research suggests that this treatment only offers a slight improvement over a placebo, A recent major study revealed that only 30% to 50% of participants reached remission using antidepressants. Malnedo, K (2018, January 18). Magnetic Pulses Healing Medication-Resistant Depression. Retrieved from https://sites.psu.edu/psych256sp18003/2018/01/20/cte-tauopathies-and-neuroimaging/. Considering these statistics, it is promising that TMS is now considered as an alternative treatment.

TMS is a procedure in which magnetic pulses are administered to a patient via electro magnetic coils placed over the scalp. These pulses are centered over the mood or limbic center of the brain. Research has shown that the brain cells in this region are dormant for those with Depression. TMS treatments can last for up to 60 minutes. The duration of treatment can be a month or more. The effects of TMS treatment can completely change the brain chemistry of a patient with Depression. Positive effects can include better concentration, better sleep, and mood.

Depression is a disorder that affects millions of Americans. It can greatly reduce a person’s quality of life. Studies have shown that Antidepressant therapy is not always effective. TMS is a therapy that has been used in the past, and is now becoming known as a possible treatment for Depression. However, it is important that a physician first determines that a patient’s Depression is medication resistant and that they do not have any issues that would disqualify them from TMS treatment.