Historical Overview
The relationship between Rome and Carthage began slowly through small skirmishes and trade interactions. The First Punic War and Rome’s heavy-handed victory set the stage for the outbreak of the Second Punic War, as the country’s differing ideals of imperialistic warfare and defensive trade came into light.
Review of the First Punic War and its Effects
Carthage was known as a trading power but not much is known about its foreign policy or its warfare history prior to the first Punic war. On the contrary, much is known about Roman warfare and trade. The lack of history on Carthage makes it hard to make certain what Carthaginian traditions were before the First Punic War. It is not known how many wars Carthage was involved in, but assumed that Carthage was a more economic power, than warring like Rome was which could dictate how the first and second Punic War was carried out.
Messana was the first militaristic conflict between Carthage and Rome in this series of events. Begun by the mercenary group of the Mamertines, the concept of fides brought Rome into the fray, while Messana’s original leaders called upon Carthaginian protection because of Carthage’s involvement in Sicily (Caven 16, 19, 21). Two nations, uninvolved in the disagreement were brought together by loyalty and location. The Roman victory in Messana turned Syracuse into an ally, rather than a foe, giving Rome a foothold in the Carthaginian realm of Sicily. (Caven 22). With this development, Carthage feared Roman expansion into their trade territories, an economic concern instigated by militaristic intervention. Rome sought greater holdings as they drew further into the Mediterranean, challenging Carthage on both land and sea as they attacked Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (Caven 30, 73). When Carthage continued to defend their outposts, Rome decided to bring the war to Africa (Caven 35). It is possible that Carthage was already calling for peace at this stage, however any requests were denied (Caven 22, 35). This is a key piece of information showing how quick Carthage was willing to end the war, while Rome wanted nothing but total victory or defeat.
Braun, , and Hogenburg. Civitates Orbis Terrarum . 1572-1618. The Punic Wars . By Brian Caven. New York: St. Martins, 1980. N. pag. Print.
As a result of this conflict, Carthaginian morale was battered and their economic pride deflated, with outposts lost and resources depleted (Caven 37). While Rome sought glory and success, Carthage sought stability and economic profit, each battle a balance of loss and gain (Caven 23). It was Carthage who finally called the First Punic War to an end. By this point both nations were struggling with the expense of the war, and Carthage recognizing that they were not going to have an economy left to save if conflict continued (Caven 60). To add insult to injury, Rome imposed a substantial fine after Carthage decided to admit defeat and withdraw from the war (Caven 64, 72). This crippled the Carthaginian state further, both financially and politically as new debts formed. There were also some Roman Senators who wanted to continue war for more glory but ultimately the cost to continue was too much (Dorey 26).
Carthage become involved in the “Truceless War” against its own mercenary troops who revolted after a delay in pay from Carthage and during this vulnerable time, Rome took initiative and overtook Sardinia (Dorey 29).
It is important to note that while much of Rome’s involvement in the First Punic war is derived from decisions of the senate and relationships between the Roman elite, little is known about similar relationships in Carthage (Caven 42, 56, 64). Ruled by an oligarchy, Carthage controlled the greater population and drew from the funds of the country more than from their own pockets. Rome’s interest in winning used the personal senatorial funds as the elite drew upon military conquests for political and social gain. Unlike Rome, Carthage provided little militaristic incentive, as generals were as likely to die upon their return as in the field.
In addition, Roman resources expanded beyond city limits, as the Italian provinces and territories provided ample manpower and funding for further warfare (Caven 27). Carthage however had few men – as they could not pull resources and men from North Africa as Rome did from Italy – and instead relied heavily on mercenary troops, an expense in itself (Dorey 27-28). This proved to be the critical detail in how the first war ended and then influenced Carthage’s new foreign policy as she sought new resources and manpower so as not be defeated so easily again.
It should be stated that the two Punic Wars were to be heavily influential with the eastern part of the Mediterranean. The first Punic War was the largest war in the western Mediterranean until the second war. The Greek kingdoms took notice of this war and signed treaties with Carthage and Rome to ensure they were allies with who they thought would be the victor in the end.
The First Punic War did not just create a relationship between Rome and Carthage, but also between the Roman Empire and the Barca Family. Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal’s father, was a general in the Carthaginian army and was dismayed and angered by the conclusion of the First Punic War (Caven 76). He came to lead Carthage’s initiative for economic expansion, moving into Spain. After his death, his brother-in-law Hasdrubal created a booming economic center and focused on developing a new source of trade and commerce for the Carthaginian state (Caven 81). Hasdrubal, much like his brother, felt at odds with the Romans but hoped for peace, and signed the Ebro River Treaty in the year 226BC (Caven 81).
Rome was not completely honest in the Ebro River Treaty however as they maintained control and military support of Saguntum, a town on the western side of the River. It is unknown when their relationship with the city was established, but it may have been formed out of Rome’s desire to keep watch on Carthaginian expansion (Caven 89). It should also be noted that while there are accounts of an alliance with Saguntum, there is no physical evidence besides here-say that Rome had developed an alliance with Saguntum (Dorey 35). The Ebro River Treaty prevented Carthage from expanding eastward into Roman Territories, however Rome was concurrently spreading westward and neglected to state their own allowance for expansion across the Ebro (Caven 89). Thus, as Hannibal would later come to believe, Rome was capable of expanding in Carthage’s territory. This would be yet another assumption of Carthaginian ports and commerce, as Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily were (Caven 89). Hannibal, harboring his father’s grudge for Romans from the First Punic War could not allow Carthage to remain submissive and merely defensive. He took initiative and devised a strategy for confrontation. Saguntum would serve as the tipping point for the Second Punic War: Carthage sought trade and Rome sought territory, and both collided as fear placed them against one another (Caven 87).
Saguntum from the East. The Punic Wars . By Brian Caven. New York: St. Martins, 1980. N. pag. Print.
What Rome believed to be a victory in the First Punic War was only temporary, as she forced Carthage to expand and rebuild the commercial empire that was lost. Understanding Rome’s power, Carthage approached new growth with hesitation and strategy, understanding that defensive militaristic developments were needed. Rome fought for victory as much as fides, and as long as Carthage thrived Rome’s war was unfinished (Caven 91). Continuing to exert unnecessary provisions on Carthage’s growth, Rome forced defensive strategy to become offensive strategy and drew Hannibal into battle for commercial independence and co-existence.
War was not Carthage’s trade as it was Rome’s, but Carthage understood the balance of scales and tried to weigh fate in their favor.
NOTE: While there are many scholarly accounts of early Roman history, there are very few of Carthaginian history and society. This may create a skewed perspective as more insight is provided for the nuances and intentions of Rome than for Carthage, leaving much of Carthage’s desires vague and unclear.
The major source for the events of the Second Punic War is Polybius which makes it extremely biased toward the Roman side of the story.