Psychology Today

Did that title make you sleepy? Did you just let out a big yawn? I know I’ve already yawned about five times just researching this very topic. So why is it that yawns are so contagious – even to the point where hearing or reading the word induces a yawn right on the spot?

The old myth claims that yawning helps draw in air, increasing blood pressure, heart rate and blood oxygen levels. Thus, enhancing alertness and motor skills. However, past research suggests that yawning has little to no affect on said processes.

Another commonly held explanation for yawning is known as the “hyperthermia hypothesis”. This theory suggests that yawning helps cool down our brains. A study conducted in 2007 revealed that holding a warm or cold pack on the participant’s forehead affected the consistency of yawning while watching a video of other people yawning. The cold packs decreased yawning, while the warm packs increased the strange phenomenon.

Some scientists also believe that yawning could just be a matter of social interaction. This theory suggests that yawning could be related to mimicry and empathy. In certain instances, we attempt to perceive things as others do and in turn, respond similarly to their responses. “I think what the study does is it supports the idea that empathy is the mechanism that underlies contagious yawns,” said Matthew Campbell of Emory University, who wasn’t involved in the study. “The idea is that it’s the same mechanism by which we catch smiles or frowns or fearful expressions.”

Past studies suggest the higher levels of empathy a person has, the more they are susceptible the yawn contagion. Even so, the closer you are to someone, the more likely you are to respond to their yawn. Research also shows that autistic children are not affected by contagious yawning, perhaps because autism is associated with poor social interaction and communication.

A recent study published March 14 in the journal PLOS ONE, is the most current  research we have for the phenomenon of contagious yawning. The new research, found by the Duke Center for Human Genome Variation suggests that yawning may subside as we age and is not linked to empathy, mimicry, energy, or fatigue.

“The lack of association in our study between contagious yawning and empathy suggests that contagious yawning is not simply a product of one’s capacity for empathy,” said study author Elizabeth Cirulli, Ph.D., assistant professor of medicine at the Center for Human Genome Variation at Duke University School of Medicine.

The researchers recruited 328 participants who completed extensive research and questionnaires, involving health, fatigue, energy and empathy levels. They were then asked to view a video of people yawning, while researches recorded the consistency of their yawns. The team found that that some were more susceptible to the video, than others. In fact, some participants racked up to 15 yawns during the 3 minute video. Of the 328, 222 participants yawned at least once. According to Duke Medicine, “When verified across multiple testing sessions, the number of yawns was consistent, demonstrating that contagious yawning is a very stable trait.”

While the study did not find any strong link between yawning and empathy, fatigue, or energy. The only independent variable that did affect the results was age. The older the participant, the less limey they were to yawn. However, the authors do denote that age only accounted for 8% of the variability of the yawning responses.

“Age was the most important predictor of contagious yawning, and even age was not that important. The vast majority of variation in the contagious yawning response was just not explained,” Cirulli said.

What I find most intriguing about this phenomenon is that it still remains unsolved. Researchers are now looking into whether the yawn contagion could be due to genetic influences. The long term goal of the research team at Duke University is to hone down on the specific variability and biology involved in contagious yawning, so we can better understand diseases such as Schizophrenia and Autism. In finding the cause of the contagion, they may be able to build an understanding that could possibly shed light on these diseases.

“It is possible that if we find a genetic variant that makes people less likely to have contagious yawns, we might see that variant or variants of the same gene also associated with schizophrenia or autism,” Cirulli said. “Even if no association with a disease is found, a better understanding of the biology behind contagious yawning can inform us about the pathways involved in these conditions.”

References:

Duke Medicine. “Contagious Yawning a Mystery: May Not Be Linked to Empathy after All.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 14 Mar. 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140314211843.htm>.

Castro, Joseph. “Why Do We Yawn?” LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 23 Sept. 2013. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/39862-why-do-we-yawn.html>.

Bryner, Jeanna. “Yawns More Contagious Among Friends.” LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 07 Dec. 2011. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/17365-yawns-contagious-friends.html>.

Bartholomew, Alex J., and Elizabeth T. Cirulli. “Individual Variation in Contagious Yawning Susceptibility Is Highly Stable and Largely Unexplained by Empathy or Other Known Factors.” PLOS ONE:. Creative Commons Attribution, 14 Mar. 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0091773>.

Buzzfeed

Liquid Confidence: Fact or Myth?

We’ve all done it, those of us of age, of course. Slug back a few drinks to shake off inhibition. Maybe you’re mustering the courage to approach that cute guy at the party, or show off your moves on the dance floor. Well there’s a name for this sly trick of the trade and it goes by liquid confidence.  According to Urban Dictionary, liquid confidence is defined as “Any alcoholic beverage that enables one to become gregarious and much more comfortable/confident in social situations.” But is alcohol really the trick, do we really need it for that extra boost of self assurance?

Researchers from the University of Pittsburgh and the University of Oslo conducted a study on the phenomenon of liquid induced courage and found that it had a greater affect on males, than females.

Lead researcher, Catharine Fairbairn of the University of Pittsburgh and her team measured the confidence based on the amount of smiling, an “objective non-verbal indicator of social bonding,” observed in a social drinking situation. They used 720 young drinkers, ages 21-28, and split them into groups of three. The participants were introduced and strategically placed around the table. Each participant was given one of three drinks, a vodka cranberry, a virgin vodka cranberry, or a deceiving vodka cranberry (containing only a few drops of vodka). The team followed the smiles of each member in the group, labeling them through “sophisticated analyses” as genuine and or contagious.

What did they find?

Fairbairn and her team discovered a significant increase in the amount of alcohol induced smiles within the all male participant groups. Alcohol had little to no effect on the contagiousness of smiles among any group with women. These findings suggest that alcohol influences males to act more confidently in social situations, among other men. Thus, allowing men to interact in ways they normally would not, sans alcohol.’

Gizmodo “Beer Goggles”

Other research suggests that alcohol not only provides us with the confidence to interact more in social environments, but it also makes you feel more confident in your own appearance. Research conducted by French, US, and Dutch scientists conducted experiments that found consistency with the theory that the more people drink, the more attractive they think they are.

A study published in the Journal of Individual Differences, questioned 19 men and women   drinking in a French bar on how they would rate their own attractiveness. After receiving each participants self ranked score, they asked them to take a breathalyzer test. The researchers found that the participants with a higher BAC were more likely to give themselves a higher score.

In a followup study, 86 men were told they were taking part in a taste test for a new drink and given a minty lemon cocktail, some of which were “virgin” and others containing alcohol. The researchers asked the participants to play the role of an actor and record an advertisement for the new drink. The participants were given instructions to rate their attractiveness on camera while watching the playbacks.

“Results showed that — regardless of the level of their intoxication and sobriety — those who thought they were drunk rated themselves more highly than others.”

It is still unknown what mechanism or internal interaction in our brain that causes this new sense of confidence while under the influence. However, British scientists suggest that this ‘beer goggle effect’ happens when “an increased alcohol intake can impair a person’s ability to detect facial symmetry.”

“These findings are significant,” says Fairbairn, “because they highlight the importance of social context in understanding drinking behavior.”

“…Therefore, social motives may be highly relevant to the understanding of how alcohol problems develop.” She adds.

Although it helps, it is never a good idea to rely solely on alcohol to shed your shy ways or boost your self confidence. In social drinking situations, it is always best to pace yourself and know your own boundaries. Researchers are looking to find safer alternatives to give us that confidence we crave. According to John Hastings of Oprah.com, “it’s nice to have alternatives to alcohol, especially for those of us who have ever blurred the line between loss of inhibition and loss of control.”

References:

AFP Relax News. “The Drunker You Are, the Sexier You Feel: Study.” NY Daily News. Daily News, 3 Aug. 2012. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/health/liquid-confidence-drunker-sexier-feel-study-article-1.1128318>.

Constantinescu, Stefan. “Science Proves That “Dutch Courage” Is a Real Thing.” Quartz. Comcast NBC Universal, 1 Oct. 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://qz.com/274365/science-proves-that-dutch-courage-is-a-real-thing/>.

Mikulak, Anna. “Alcohol Makes Smiles More ‘contagious,’ but Only for Men.” EurekAlert! American Association for the Advancement of Science, 30 Sept. 2014. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-09/afps-ams092914.php>.

Hastings, John. “Liquid Confidence.” Oprah.com. Harpo Productions, July 2007. Web. 04 Dec. 2014. <http://www.oprah.com/health/Alternatives-to-Alcohol-to-Drown-Your-Inhibitions>.

Discover Magazine

A recent discovery in research has found that men may have bigger snouts compared to women because they generally have more muscle, which requires a larger oxygen intake.

The scientists also point out that this discovery could help explain why Neanderthals, the closest extinct relatives to humans, bore such large noses.

Ancient skeletons portray larger body masses than current humans. Theories suggest that these species could have relied on larger noses to supply greater levels of oxygen and therefore, support their body types. However, a link between body and nose size cannot be proven due to the fragmented and broken states of ancient fossil remains.

According to LiveScience, “Past research of a wide range of modern humans globally also revealed that men generally have larger noses than women, and typically have larger nasal cavities and airways behind the nose as well. In addition, men consume more oxygen during nasal breathing than women.”

To solve the mystery of nose size, researchers analyzed the point in human development when nose size begins to change. The team concentrated on a sample of 18 females and 20 males, all of European descent. They gathered information from the Iowa Facial Growth Study and observed various X-rays and physical exams, spanning from ages 3 to over 20.

The team found that the noses of both males and females were similar in size, preadolescence. However, with puberty, male noses begin to grow as the body builds more muscle, allowing males to consume more oxygen. Males typically grow leaner muscles during this period, as opposed to females. The male noses observed in the study were up to ten percent larger, on average, than female noses.

“As body size increases in males and females during growth, males exhibit a disproportionate increase in nasal size,” said Nathan Holton, biological anthropologist and lead author. “This follows the same pattern as energetic variables such as oxygen consumption.”

The authors of this study denote that their research observed less than 40 people, all of European descent, which does not make the theory universally true. However, past research does suggest that the notion of men having larger noses is a global phenomenon, so Holton’s recent findings appear to be consistent with what scientists already know.

References:

Lewis, Richard. “The Big Male Nose.” Iowa Now. University of Iowa, 18 Nov. 2013. Web. 02 Dec. 2014. <http://now.uiowa.edu/2013/11/big-male-nose>.

Choi, Charles Q. “Why Guys Have Bigger Noses Than Gals.” LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 18 Nov. 2013. Web. 02 Dec. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/41276-why-men-have-larger-noses.html>.

Wikipedia

Researchers at the University of Georgia have found that an ingredient commonly found in our morning coffee could potentially prevent the detrimental effects of obesity.

A recent paper published in Pharmaceutical Research, reports a study in which scientists discovered that chlorogenic acid, or CGA, reduced insulin resistance and fat buildup in the livers of mice.

Obesity rates in the United States have more than doubled since the 1970’s. According to to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, more than one third of adults and approximately 17% of children are obese. To put that into perspective, that’s 78.6 million adults and 12.7 million children living with obesity in the US. Although recent statistics suggest that obesity rates have plateaued, it is still a leading public health problem in this country.

The two most common side affects of obesity are insulin resistance and a buildup of fat within the liver. Insulin resistance is a condition in which the insulin produced by the body is not used properly. During digestion, muscle, fat and liver cells are unable to absorb glucose from the bloodstream, which therefore causes an excess accumulation of glucose. Most people with insulin resistance will suffer for many years, unaware of their condition. Over time, these disorders can lead to prediabetes, diabetes, and poor liver function, if left untreated.

The study consisted of a 15 week trial in which the mice were fed a strict, high-fat diet and injected twice-weekly doses of a CGA solution. After observing the trial, the researchers concluded that chlorogenic acid was effective in preventing weight gain, as well as managing normal blood sugar levels and a healthy liver.

“CGA is a powerful antioxidant that reduces inflammation,” said Yongjie Ma, postdoctoral research associate of UGA’s College of Pharmacy and lead author of the paper. “A lot of evidence suggests that obesity-related diseases are caused by chronic inflammation, so if we can control that, we can hopefully offset some of the negative effects of excessive weight gain.”

Previous studies have shown that the consumption of coffee could lower the risk of these obesity-related disorders. And if you’re not a coffee drinker, have no fear. You can still get your CGA fix from a variety of fruits and vegetables, such as apples, pears, tomatoes and blueberries.

The authors of the study do denote, however, that CGA is not an absolute cure to obesity and its damaging effects. Although the study showed significant results in the mice’s health, they received doses of CGA that were much higher, compared to a typical consumption found in a cup of coffee. The best ways to avoid the risks associated with obesity are a healthy diet and regular exercise.

“We’re not suggesting that people start drinking a lot of coffee to protect themselves from an unhealthy lifestyle,” said Ma. “But we do think that we might be able to create a useful therapeutic using CGA that will help those at risk for obesity-related disease as they make positive lifestyle changes.”

The authors plan to conduct more research and improve their CGA solution for safe, human consumption.

References:

University of Georgia. “Chemical in coffee may help prevent obesity-related disease.” ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 14 November 2014. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141114124907.htm>.

Yongjie Ma, Mingming Gao, Dexi Liu. Chlorogenic Acid Improves High Fat Diet-Induced Hepatic Steatosis and Insulin Resistance in Mice. Pharmaceutical Research, 2014; DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1526-9

CDC. “Adult Obesity Facts.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 09 Sept. 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2014. <http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html>.

FRAC. “Overweight and Obesity in the U.S.” Food Research Action Center. Food Research Action Center, 2014. Web. 17 Nov. 2014. <http://frac.org/initiatives/hunger-and-obesity/obesity-in-the-us/>.

NIDDK. “Insulin Resistance and Prediabetes.” National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. National Institutes of Health, 10 Sept. 2014. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/insulinresistance/>.

Imagine Games Network

You’ve woken up in an unfamiliar room, stains on your clothes and one ripped knee of your pants. Your ID is missing, along with your room key, the only thing you remember is that last round of shots you took last night. You’re experiencing the common phenomenon known as a blackout, but what does that actually mean?

There are two distinguishable forms of alcohol-induced amnesia, en bloc and fragmentary. En bloc is an episode of permanent memory loss caused by intoxicating events. Fragmentary episodes, also known as “brownouts”, are temporary instances of memory loss, that can typically be retrieved through clues. These periods of memory loss are “anterograde,” meaning that while intoxicated, the person is unable to establish new memories, but can recall memories made before the point of intoxication. Both types are due to a neurophysiological disruption in the hippocampus, a region of the brain in charge of memory formation.

According to the Modal Model of Memory, originally proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin, there are three stages to memory formation. When one experiences sensory information, it is quickly transferred from sensory memory to short–term memory. This stage can last from seconds to minutes (depending on the amount of rehearsal), before it is transferred to long–term storage. Alcohol can influence all three stages of the Modal Model to some degree, but it has the largest impact on the transfer of information from short–term to long–term. While intoxicated, subjects can recall immediate or current information and keep it in short–term memory for 1 minute or more, if not being distracted. However, subjects with higher levels of alcohol begin to show impairments in the ability to transfer memories into long–term storage.

National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism

According to a 2011 study, alcohol interferes with receptors located in the hippocampus. These receptors are responsible for transmitting glutamate, a compound that relays signals from neuron to neuron. Alcohol disables some neurons from working properly, while activating others. This interference causes neurons to form steroids that prevent the proper neuron interaction vital for long-term potentiation (LTP), an important process for memory formation.

“It takes a lot of alcohol to block LTP and memory,” said study researcher Charles Zorumski, of the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. “The alcohol triggers these receptors to behave in seemingly contradictory ways, and that’s what actually blocks the neural signals that create memories. It also may explain why individuals who get highly intoxicated don’t remember what they did the night before.”

Researchers involved in the study exposed the brains of rats to different levels of alcohol. They didn’t detect any changes at low levels in the cells’ interaction. However, at fairly large levels, affects in the rats’ ability to form memories became apparent. The researchers were able to yield the steroid-making process with prostate-reduction drugs, and observed that this allowed the rats to form memories, even at high alcohol levels.

Thus, when the cells of the brain are exposed to large amounts of alcohol they lose their ability to communicate with each other. These connections are essential for long-term potentiation. Therefore, according to LiveScience, “If the connections can’t be made, the memories of experiences can’t be saved.”

Now that we know the science behind those troublesome blackouts, is there anyway we can avoid possible episodes in the future? As in any alcohol related scenario, it is always wise to drink on a full stomach. According to studies, a blackout’s main catalyst is a dramatic increase in blood alcohol content. Therefore, one must pace themselves and keep track of the amount of alcohol they consume. The best way to avoid a blackout is to drink less and at a lower rate.

References:

Jackson, Jon. “What Happens To Your Brain When You Get Black-Out Drunk?” Gizmodo. Kinja, 22 Feb. 2013. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <http://gizmodo.com/5977688/what-happens-to-your-brain-when-you-get-black-out-drunk>.

Welsh, Jennifer. “Alcohol’s Memory Impairment Not Due to ‘Killing Brain Cells'” LiveScience. Tech Media Network, 07 July 2011. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/14952-alcohol-blackouts.html>.

White, Aaron M., Ph.D. “What Happened? Alcohol, Memory Blackouts, and the Brain.” What Happened? Alcohol, Memory Blackouts, and the Brain. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, July 2004. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-2/186-196.htm>.

Hartzler, B., and K. Fromme. “Result Filters.” National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, July 2003. Web. 16 Nov. 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12921196>.

Prevention.com

There is a lot of controversy among women over the notion of sleeping in our bras.  Some women regard the idea with horror and discomfort, while others have been doing it, without a second thought, since their preteens.

There are many claims that have circulated for decades concerning the benefits and possible health risks attributed to wearing a bra to sleep. Some research has even suggested that it could even lead to breast cancer. But is any of this true?

Amber Guth, M.D., associate professor of surgery and director of the Breast Cancer Surgery Multidisciplinary Fellowship at NYU Langone Medical Center, told Huffington Post “there is certainly no evidence that sleeping in bras is either helpful or harmful.”

According to Shape Magazine, this rumor started with a 1950’s book Dressed to Kill, by Sydney Ross Singer and Soma Grismaijer. In the book, the authors claim that the restrictive nature of a bra constricts the lymphatic system, inhibiting it from functioning properly and causing a buildup of fluid within the breast tissue.

According to Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, a journal of the American Association for Cancer Research, a recent case-control study found no association between bra wearing and an increased risk in breast cancer.

“Study participants were 454 women with invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) and 590 women with invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC), the two most common subtypes of breast cancer, from the Seattle-Puget Sound metropolitan area; 469 women who did not have breast cancer served as controls. All women were postmenopausal, ages 55 to 74.”

The researchers then conducted interviews with the participants, to gather information regarding family history, reproductive history, and demographics. The participants were asked several questions concerning their bra-wearing rituals and patterns, spanning all the way back to when they first started wearing one.

Lu Chen, MPH, a researcher in the Public Health Sciences Division at Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center explains, “Our study found no evidence that wearing a bra increases a woman’s risk for breast cancer. The risk was similar no matter how many hours per day women wore a bra, whether they wore a bra with an underwire, or at what age they first began wearing a bra.”

Many bra-wearing sleepers claim they’ve been doing it for years for the main reason of keeping their girls from sagging. But can this simple trick really help bolster our chests in the long run?  “Sagging or changes in the breast are due to a number of factors: Pregnancy and breastfeeding being the most common causes, along with time and gravity” Guth says.

The scientific name for droop is ptosis. Ptosis happens due to a combination of size, age, and gravity. With age, the natural collagen levels in our skin begin to deplete.  Furthermore, gravity stretches the skin around the breasts. Size also plays a large part in the process. Whether due to pregnancy, weight gain, implants or genes, larger breasts have a greater risk of sagging.

Going braless doesn’t seem to be the main reason for the unfortunate phenomenon of breast ptosis, and wearing a bra to bed doesn’t seem to pose any major benefits. However, according to Arthur Perry, M.D., it might be beneficial for women with C cups and up to make it a habit of sleeping with a little extra support at night.

Works Cited:

Chan, Amanda L. “Is It Bad To Wear A Bra To Sleep?” The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 18 Sept. 2014. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/18/wear-bra-to-sleep_n_5824510.html>.

Moore, Jeremy. “Research Finds No Association between Wearing a Bra and Breast Cancer.” EurekAlert! American Association for Cancer Research, 5 Sept. 2014. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-09/aafc-rfn090214.php>.

You Beauty Editors. “Ask a Scientist: Should I Sleep in a Bra? – Youbeauty.com.” YouBeauty. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Nov. 2014. <http://www.youbeauty.com/body-fitness/sleep-in-a-bra>.

Photo: Tetra Images

Yes, you read the title correctly.  Researchers claim that a microscopic organism hidden in cat feces could someday, potentially treat cancer.

This CATastic miracle is known as Toxoplasma gondii and it CATegorized as single-celled parasite, living in the intestines of cats.  The parasite is a common infection in both people and other animals, as well.  However it is not known to harm people, due to the work of the immune system, warding off illness. Researchers hope that by tackling and recording the immune system’s response to the parasite, they can find a way to administer it to attack tumors.

David J. Bzik, a professor of microbiology and immunology at Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth College treated two types of mice with a genetically modified Toxoplasma.  One group of mice was sick with melanoma, the other with ovarian cancer.  According to Live Science, Bzik’s studies found that the treatment not only shrank the tumor, but increased the chances of survival for the mice. Bzik stated, “We know [that] biologically, this parasite has figured out how to stimulate the exact immune responses you want to fight cancer.”

How does the parasite work?

Toxoplasma is ubiquitous, meaning it can be found anywhere.  It also mainly infects warm-blooded species.  The parasite is intelligent in the fact that it manipulates the responses of the immune system.  “The parasite has learned not to kill the host, as well as not to let the host kill itself — for example, by having too much of an inflammatory response,” says Bzik.  In the event of the parasite invading an animal’s body, the immune system of the animal would react quickly, killing replicating parasite cells.  This quick reaction would protect the host, allowing it to survive.  However, the parasite is not gone.  After the initial infection, it becomes a dormant form, carried within the tissues, muscles, and brain of the host for the rest of its life.

The immune system of an animal plays an important role in responding to infections by releasing a cell known as CD8+ T.  The role of these specific cells is to destroy infected cells, and more importantly, tumor cells.  Bzik claims, “They are the single most important cell type that can eradicate tumor cells, but their generation is shut down by the tumor.”

So how do we fix this problem?

The researchers working with the cancerous mice concluded to use a Toxoplasma parasite of a safer form.  By manipulating the genome of the parasite, they were able to hinder its reproduction in animals and humans.  In simpler terms, the researchers were able to hinder the parasites ability to cause disease.  According to Live Science, Bzik and his team created a vaccine and injected it straight into the tumors of the mice. The parasite did exactly what the team had hoped, it entered the CD8+ T cells which, in return, attacked the tumorous cells.

Results?

Bzik and his research team have cured six cases of melanoma tumors. Live Science reports that the tumors of the mice “shrank to a nondetectable size after 12 days and multiple treatments.”  An astounding 90 percent of the mice survived due to the parasite.  Bzik also reported, “In an aggressive ovarian cancer, we found similar positive results, but when we treat a really aggressive ovarian cancer…we get extended survival, but all the mice eventually succumb to tumors”

Of course, much more research needs to be done before we can prize our cat’s poop as cancer-treating.  Bzik and his team need to learn more about the process of the immune system response to Toxoplasma.  Also, more research needs to be done about the safety of this parasite, before we can transfer it from the lab and into hospitals.

References:

Gholipour, Bahar. “Your Cat’s Poop Could One Day Treat Cancer.” Live Science. Tech Media Network, 23 July 2014. Web. 19 Sept. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/46953-cat-poop-cancer-treatments.html>.

Photo: Investigación y Desarrollo

S!@$ or Shiitake?

A group of Mexican scientists have found that cultivating mushrooms in used, disposable diapers could reduce waste by more than 80 percent.

According to LiveScience, “Diapers are made up of some of the most indestructible materials on earth.”  Did you know that diapers can last up to hundreds of years in landfills?  Now pair that with the fact that according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, during infancy the average infant goes through 8,000 diapers.  According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are over 4 million babies born in the U.S. in a year.  That’s a lot of soiled diapers laying around in the U.S., alone.  As for the world, that’s an astounding amount of waste.

So what do we do?

To help fix this icky problem, a research team from Autonomous Metropolitan University in Azcapotzalco, Mexico, tested the theory of using mushrooms to degrade disposable diapers.  Diapers consist of cellulose, which is a plant-based material that mushrooms consume.  However, diapers are mostly made up of non-biodegradable materials known as polyethylene, polypropylene and sodium polyacrylate.

How did they grow the fungus?

In their process of gardening the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatusthe), the team only used diapers of liquid waste. The diapers were first sterilized by high-pressure steaming via an autoclave. After sterilizing, the diapers were ground up and blended with a mixture of lignin containing the leftovers of pressed grapes, pineapple tops and coffee grounds. According to Biology Online, lignin is defined as “an organic substance which act as a binder for the cellulose fibres in wood and certain plants and adds strength and stiffness to the cell walls.”  Lignin is necessary in order to grow mushrooms.  The last step in the process was the spreading of fungus spores onto the new mixture.  The researchers then left the diapers, wrapped in plastic bags, in a dark room for three months under strict temperature and humidity guidelines.

Three Months Later…

After three months in the dark, the mushrooms had bloomed and the degradation was greatly noteworthy.  The growth of the fungus had reduced the volume and weight of the diaper concoction by up to 80%.

Is it safe to eat the diaper crop?

Because the diapers were sterilized the team was able to taste test the mushrooms and noted that they were high in protein, fat, vitamins and minerals.  Lead researcher Rosa María Espinosa Valdemar stated that they were not grown for human consumption.  “The main objective is to get rid of diapers to avoid damaging the environment more,” she explained.  “However, the mushrooms could be used as food supplement for cattle.”

Who knew all it took was a green thumb to solve the problem of non-biodegradable diapers?

References:

Lewis, Tanya. “Icky Solution to Diaper Waste: Grow Mushrooms on Them.” Live Science. TechMedia Network, 04 Sept. 2014. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/47693-growing-mushrooms-on-diapers.html>.

Neporent, Liz. “Scientists Grow Mushrooms in Dirty Diapers.” ABC News. ABC News Network, 4 Sept. 2014. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://abcnews.go.com/Health/scientists-grow-mushrooms-dirty-diapers/story?id=25246349>.

Photo: Rahul Alvares

Venomous snakes are surely dangerous when alive, and now according to new findings in research, we have reason to be scared of them, even when dead.

According to an August 22nd report by The Daily Mirror, a chef in China died of a fatal bite from a decapitated snake head while preparing cobra soup.  The chef was reportedly bitten by the Indochinese Spitting Cobra just twenty minutes after its decapitation.  Although this phenomenom seems strange, researchers and snake analysts assure that it can and does happen more often than we think.

“Snakes in general are well known for retaining reflexes after death,” says Steven Beaupré, a biology professor at the University of Arkansas.  The head of a snake is comprised of its jaw muscles, venom mechanism, and the nerves controlling these glands and muscles.  A snake’s tissue is unusual in the fact that it can last great lengths of time without circulating blood.  Therefore, the function of the tissue and its reflexes can endure, even after decapitation.  According to Beaupré, biting is a reflex that can remain active in the brain up to hours after a snake’s death.  A snake bite is much different from any other carnivorous animal, because all it takes is one swift and stealthy bite to poison their prey.  Rattlesnakes can inject venom into their pray in less than two-tenths of a second.

The bodies of dead snakes are known to lash out and lift off of the ground after decapitation, in response to threats around them.  In a video posted on The Guardian, a man from Huntsville, Alabama captures a scene of a decapitated Copperhead snake biting its own tail. In response to the bite, the tail of the snake flails around, trying to fight off the perceived enemy.  According to Beaupré, these response movements are caused by ions remaining in the nerve cells after death.  A reflexive action, such as a bite occurs when these nerves are stimulated.  “The bite and envenomation reflex is triggered by some kind of information that comes into the mouth cavity,” Says Beaupré . Perhaps this unlucky Chef put his finger in the snakes mouth, triggering its reflex to bite, and worse, envenomate.

Let this be a lesson to all of us, beware of dead snakes!

References:

Mosbergen, Dominique. “Chef Reportedly Dies After Being Bitten By A Decapitated Snake, But Is That Even Possible?” The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 03 Sept. 2014. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/03/decapitated-snake-bite-man-dies_n_5755416.html>.

Iacurel, Jenna. “Severed Snake Heads Still Deliver Dangerous Bite.” Nature World News RSS. Nature World News, 2 Sept. 2014. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/8840/20140902/severed-snake-heads-still-deliver-dangerous-bite.htm>.

Palermo, Elizabeth. “Can a Severed Snake Head Still Kill? It’s Possible.” Live Science. Tech Media Network, 30 Aug. 2014. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/47626-severed-snake-head-can-still-bite.html>.

We’ve all had that special blanket or stuffed animal that has accompanied us throughout our childhood.  For me, it was my beloved, dalmatian Beanie Baby “Dottie.”  And I won’t lie, Dottie accompanied me to college and currently lives in my apartment. Last year, going into my first semester, I was surprised and also comforted to see that my roommate had brought her “blankie” to school with her and gripped it tight every night while she slept.  However I don’t think you could characterize it as a blanket anymore because it was completely ripped to shreds that were tied together with a knot.  So why do we hold on to these objects for so long, even when they are falling apart?  Will we ever be able to let them go?

In a survey taken by the hotel chain Travelodge, 35% of 6,000 adults admitted to sleeping with stuffed animals.  The trend of bringing our beloved childhood objects into adulthood is actually more common than people think.  Even though we don’t want to admit it, chances are that our closets friends may be hiding their blankies under their pillow.  Before 1970, it was commonly believed by psychologists that this phenomenon portrayed a lack of parenting.  However, a 2000 study published in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology discovered that children experienced less stress (measured by blood pressure and heart rate) at the doctor’s office when their security blankets or objects were by their side.

The attachment may fade while some children begin to grow and reach puberty, however, many children still hold on to these security objects into their teenage years.  A 1986 study, published in the Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, sampled 230 middle school students.  In the study, researchers found that 21% of girls and 12% of boys still needed their security object.  73% of the girls and 45% of the boys still owned the beloved object or could name where that object was.

So why did my roommate have so much affection for a ratty knot of shredded blanket?  Bruce Hood, a psychologist from the University of Bristol, has studied the sentimental attachment people have to certain objects.  He says that the reason for our attachment is mainly nostalgia, but also deeply emotional.  According to LiveScience, the correct term to describe this phenomenon is Essentialism, which is defined as “the idea that objects are more than just their physical properties”.  In a study done by Hood, published in 2007 in the journal Cognition, children ranging from ages 3-6 were given the chance to place their toys in a “copy box”, exchanging them for a duplicate toy.  Hood and his colleagues found that the kids were willing to play with duplicates of most toys, but were reluctant to duplicate their favorite item.  25% refused to duplicate their security toy and most of those who did immediately wanted their original toy back.  The research showed that the children only had an emotional attachment to their very own item, even when given an object that looked exactly like it.

But how does this attachment follow us into adulthood?  Another study done by Hood in August of 2010 and published in the Journal of Cognition and Culture, asked adults to cut up photographs portraying their most cherished item. The researchers watched and noted the galvanic skin response or sweat production of the participants, as they cut.  Hood found that the people who sweated the most showed discontent in the activity.  Participants had a hard time cutting up pictures of the item, even when it was blurred and unrecognizable.  However, when asked to cut up a picture of a less valuable item, the participants displayed little or no distress.

It is still unknown among researchers what is in our brain that causes this attachment to these security objects.  Who knew we could have such deep and emotional relationships with ratty blankets and old, worn-out stuffed teddy bears? One thing I know for sure is that my beloved Dottie will be with me for a long long time.  She’s been a good companion throughout my childhood, and you can’t just throw away your friends!

References:

Pappas, Stephanie. “Even Grown-Ups Need Security Blankets.” LiveScience. Tech Media Network, 10 Oct. 2010. Web. 18 Sept. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/8737-grown-ups-security-blankets.html>.

The Ebola Virus has been a popular topic in the news since this summer, when two American Missionaries contracted the disease during a stay in Liberia.  In all honesty, my knowledge of EBV (Ebola Virus Disease) before the recent outbreak was very limited. However, once I learned that this deadly virus had made its way back to America, sending the country into panic, I started to do a little research.  Did you know that we are dealing with the largest Ebola outbreak in known history? According to the World Health Organization, Ebola has infected over 2,400 people, killing over half of its victims.  This malicious virus is spreading like wildfire in West Africa. In fact, just this afternoon, President Obama released a statement announcing the country’s increase in response to the outbreak.

Now I won’t bore you with the facts that we have all already heard in the media the past couple months.  However, in my findings of research on Ebola, one question seemed to perplex me… What is the original host of this virus?

Image: Lynn Johnson, National Geographic

According to the World Health Organization, the fruit bat (Hypsignathus monstrosus, Epomops franqueti and Myonycteris torquata), indigenous to Africa, is the likely source of EBV. According to BBC News, last March, officials of Guinea announced a ban of both the consumption and sale of bat meat. Bat meat is commonly found in food markets across the world. Ten years ago, researchers found that people of Chamorro were infected by a neurotoxin originating from cycad seeds eaten by the Flying Fox Bat. Similarly, the first victims of Ebola commonly ate and prepared bat dishes for their villages. A study  published last April in a journal named Viruses, showed Ebola antibodies in a large number of fruit bats circulating Asia, West Africa, Central Africa, and the Congo.  The disease infects the bats, but is not known to kill them, making it easy for the species to spread EBV.  Pair this with the fact that bats can migrate up to thousands of miles, and we’ve really got a problem on our hands.

So how do we solve it?  A 2012 study showed that the most successful way to detect this virus in bats, is by researching deceased species.  Dead bats are reportedly hard to find, perhaps because the hosts of this virus were long gone due to environmental changes before researchers were able to get to these regions.  We cannot afford to kill all of the bats because they pollinate plants and eat insects known to destroy crops.  Coming in contact with bats through hunting also poses a threat of infecting more humans with the disease.  In order to better understand how to solve this problem, researchers must find out more about the biological and environmental circumstances producing this outbreak.  Will Scientists ever discover the root of this problem?

References:

Wilson, Jacque, Caleb Hellerman, and Danielle Dellorto. “What Happens When You Survive Ebola?” CNN. Cable News Network, 01 Jan. 1970. Web. 17 Sept. 2014. <http://www.cnn.com/2014/08/21/health/ebola-treatment-drug/>.

World Health Organization. “Ebola Virus Disease.” WHO. World Health Organization, Apr. 2014. Web. 16 Sept. 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs103/en/>.

Saey, Tina Hesman. “Animal Source of Ebola Outbreak Eludes Scientists.” Science News. Society For Science and the Public, 11 Aug. 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014. <https://www.sciencenews.org/article/animal-source-ebola-outbreak-eludes-scientists>.

Doucleff, Michaeleen. “Ebola In The Skies? How The Virus Made It To West Africa.” NPR. NPR, 19 Aug. 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/goatsandsoda/2014/08/19/341468027/ebola-in-the-skies-how-the-virus-made-it-to-west-africa>.

Stallard, Brian. “Hunting Down Ebola’s Origins: Too Little Too Late?” Nature World News RSS. National World News, 20 Aug. 2014. Web. 17 Sept. 2014. <http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/8642/20140820/hunting-down-ebolas-origins-little-late.htm>.

Hello All,

My name is Madison and I’m a sophomore studying Public Relations in the College of Communications. I’m from Erie PA, the 2013/2014 winner for the snowiest city in America, wooo! I decided to take this class because I needed a science requirement and I have not had very good experiences with science classes in the past. Science does not interest me in the least, which is funny because both of my parents have majors in forestry and my mom is a high  school biology teacher. I wish I could say the interest is in my blood, but it’s not, unfortunately. I’ve always been better when it comes to the reading, writing, and speaking aspects of education, which is why I plan on taking the Communications route. However, as much as I dislike Science, I think this course will be interesting to me because it applies science to everyday life and touches on a lot of topics I’ve never really learned about in previous classes. Good luck to everyone taking this class!

And here is a picture of a sunset on Lake Erie: