One of the biggest political fights that has occurred over the past couple of years is the fight over the Keystone Oil Pipeline.  The pipeline would have transported oil from Canada to the Gulf Coast, and quickly became a hot button political issue.  Environmentalists feared what would happen if  an oil spill were to occur and resented the fact that the process required to extract oil from Canadian tar sands emitted even more carbon dioxide.  Eventually, President Obama would chose not to approve the pipeline causing Environmentalists to turn their attention to their next cause.

Recently activists in Utah were able to prevent the auctioning of government lands for oil drilling.  Protesters are currently planning to meet in Washington D.C. in order to try and prevent another land auction, while Environmentalists are busy paying attention to the Paris Climate Talks.

So does preventing drilling improve the economy?  There is evidence supporting the claim that some fossil fuels must remain undrilled if we are to prevent global temperatures from rising by more the two degrees Celsius.  If temperatures begin to rise by more than two degrees Celsius Earth would face changing weather patterns, rising sea levels, and losses in food supply.  While fossil fuel use needs to be limited, research shows that drilling does not need to stop immediately.  A study published in Nature a couple of years ago found that “a third of remaining oil reserves, half of gas reserves and 80% of coal reserves should remain unused.”  Despite this, it seems unlikely that the debate over drilling will end.

http://time.com/4102868/president-obama-rejects-keystone-xl-pipeline/#

http://time.com/4132636/activists-paris-climate-talks/

Cracking knuckles seems like a such a small thing.  There are many misconceptions about cracking knuckles, one of the most famous being that if you do so you will develop arthritis.  It’s something most people do, however it is more of a mystery than you might think.    Scientists disagree on how exactly cracking knuckles works.  Some scientists theorize that it is caused by a joint or tendon resettling.  Another theory is that it is a result of carbon dioxide either popping or forming in synovial fluid (the fluid that lubricates a person’s joints).  However, Dr. Robert Boutin a professor of radiology at University of California Davis developed a different theory.

Boutin divided the people participating in the study into two groups.  The first group was thirty men and women who cracked their knuckles.  Boutin estimated the amount of times the participants had cracked their knuckles and recruited 10 non-knuckle crackers.  Next, the subjects cracked their knuckles at the metacarpopphalangeal joint, while the joint was scanned by an ultra sound.  Out of 400 trials, only 62 produced an audible crack.  In all of the cases were an audible crack was produced, researches observed a flash.  The flash seems to support the bubble theory.  Boutin claims that he remain uncertain about whether or the crack comes from a bubble popping or forming, and says that more research is needed.  However, he did state that the crack proceeded the flash, supporting the idea that the crack comes form the bubble forming.

The study seems to have been well conducted, however the sample size is a little small.  The researchers did end up submitting the sonograms to radiologists who were not involved in the study, and thus did not know which knuckles cracked.  Nevertheless, they predicted which knuckes cracked with 94% accuracy.

http://time.com/4130607/knuckle-cracking-bubble/

http://time.com/3529225/cracking-knuckles-arthritis/

In one of the largest cases of whale standings occured in Chile when 337 whales washed up on shore.  It is believed that the whales are sei whales, but it is difficult to tell due to the rate of decomposition.  The whales were discovered when a group of scientists flew over the isolated Aysen region lovcated in the South of Chile.  Whale beachings are common in Aysen, however it is unusual for sei to gather together in such large groups.  Scientists found 305 whale bodies and 32 skeletons through aerial and satellite photography.  Biologists were unable to examine to bodies in person because of the location of the Aysen region.  Aysen is incredibly is isolated, the steep shoreline and rough seas make it difficult for boats to land on the cost.  Biologists hope to examine the whales in person during the summer.  Scientists are unsure of exactly how the whales died, they believe that the whales died at sea, not by beaching.  Additionally, they are confident that the deaths were not related the humans.

The beaching is especially troubling because sei whales are endangered, with an estimated population of 80,000 worldwide.  Sei whales feed on krill and are considered to be the fastest specious of whale.  They are large, blue-gray and baleen whales.  Some suspect that the whale was killed by a red tide (an algal bloom).

While sadly the whales found off of Chile’s coast are dead, biologists have methods to save beached whales when they survive washing to shore.  If the animals are only in shallow water rescuers  will play the sound of the whales’ own kind to try and lure them into the water or they will play the sound of predators to try and frighten them.  Biologists will also try and herd the whales back out to see by using their boats.  If the whales are beached it is much more difficult to save them.  Rescuers will try and move the whales into the water, in some cases resorting to equipment like slings and cranes to try and drag the whales back out to sea.  While it might be too late for the sei whales on Aysen’s coast, hopefully scientists can find out what caused so many whales to become beached.

http://time.com/4132190/chile-beached-whales/

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/11/151120-worlds-largest-whale-stranding-sei-chile-animals/

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/redtide.html

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/12/131205-rescue-stranded-whales-everglades-marine-mammals-science/

Everybody knows how strong diamonds are.  However a group of scientists have recently developed synthetic diamonds called Q-carbon that is stronger and brighter than actual diamonds.  Q-carbon acts a third phase of carbon, previously scientists had only been aware that graphite and diamond served as solid phases of carbon.   Q-carbon is created by aiming a laser at carbon for 200 nanoseconds and then cooling in a process known as drenching.  The heat from the laser causes the carbon to become 3,700 degrees Celsius, almost double the heat that it took for natural diamonds forms millions of years ago.  Experts don’t know if Q-carbon exists naturally, but some believe that it could potentially exist naturally in the cores of planets.

There are other methods for creating synthetic diamonds including one known as chemical vapor deposition.  Chemical vapor deposition involves altering a plasma source into a new shape that creates synthetic diamonds.  The scientists start with a natural diamond and make it larger by adding carbon atoms.  The process thus creates diamonds that are indistinguishable from natural diamonds to the average customer.

While there could be some use for the synthetic diamonds produced by chemical vapor deposition, Q-carbon exhibits far more potential.  While the process that makes Q-carbon produces less diamond than industrial methods, it is easier to produce because it does not require closely monitored air pressure and temperature like industrial diamond making processes do.   Additionally, scientists believe that there are additional uses for Q-carbon due to its unique properties.  Researchers say that Q-carbon is magnetic (which most forms of carbon are not), fluorescent, and electroconductive.  Jay Narayan, the lead scientist on the study, says that Q-carbon could be used to create synthetic body parts, improve deep water drills, and improve cell phones and televisions (By making brighter and longer lasting screens).  Scientists believe Q-carbon could also be used for other medical purposes besides synthetic body parts.  For instance that it could be used as microneedles or large area diamond films, which could serve as cheap applications for administering drugs.  This could prove to be especially beneficial for cancer patients.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/03/science/q-carbon-harder-than-diamond.html?rref=collection%2Fsectioncollection%2Fscience&action=click&contentCollection=science&region=rank&module=package&version=highlights&contentPlacement=9&pgtype=sectionfront

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/12/science/borrowing-from-solar-and-chip-tech-to-make-diamonds-faster-and-cheaper.html?_r=0

http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/01/tech/super-diamond-q-carbon-scientists-laser/index.html,

https://news.ncsu.edu/2015/11/narayan-q-carbon-2015/

Recently in class we learned about reconstructed the Spanish Flu, and how many scientists were conflicted over it.  Some felt that that my reconstructing the Spanish Flu could potentially put people in danger.  Recently a group of scientists decided to place a moratorium on making changes to the human genome that could potentially be inherited.  While the two issues are not directly related, they do have several similarities, as both involve concerns about not being able solve any problems that could potentially arise as a result of bioenginering.

The scientists had convened at a meeting called by the United States National Academy of States, the Institute of Medicine, the Royal Society of London, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences.  While the groups involved cannot punish scientists who do not comply with the decision.  However, these institutions are well respected enough that it seems as though the scientific community will follow the decision anyway.  Restraints placed on an earlier form genetic manipulation by a similar meeting in 1975 were followed.  The authority of the meeting is further bolstered by the agreement of the Chinese scientists who seemed reluctant to halt progress on altering the human genome.

The reason for the new rule comes from a new technology known as Crispr-Cas9.  Crispr-Cas9 is revolutionary due to its ability to snip out a piece of DNA and neatly stitch the ends back together.  It can even cut out a single base pair form a piece of DNA.  One scientist stated that before Crispr he had inject around a millions cells to get a perfect mutation but now he only has to inject about ten.  Another advantage of Crispr is its potential for curing diseases.   However, there is some debate about whether or not Crispr is a neccesity.  While it would be needed to prevent some diseases such as Huntington’s, scientists are doubtful of its usefulness because most inheritable diseases are caused by more than one misplaced gene.  Even in cases where there is a single misplaced gene, the problem can typically be solved through in vitro fertilization.  Scientists feel that the potential advantages of Crispr do not outweigh the risks that could be brought about by altering the human genome in such a profound way.  Despite their concerns, the conference did leave the possibility of modifying human genes in the future and stated that the topic should be revisited at regular intervals.

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/04/science/crispr-cas9-human-genome-editing-moratorium.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/15/magazine/the-crispr-quandary.html?action=click&contentCollection=Science&module=RelatedCoverage&region=Marginalia&pgtype=article

Recently scientists made a discovery that reveals new information about the ancestry of modern Europeans.  Previously, scientists had believed the genetic make-up of modern Europeans was formed from three different tribes.  However new information reveals that a fourth group contributed to the current European gene pool.

Geneticists had previously been aware of three different groups that influenced the genetic make up of Europe today: Middle Eastern farmers, indigenous hunters, and herders knows as the Yamnaya.  The hunters moved to Europe before the invention of agriculture and primarily lived in Southern Europe during the Ice Age, and then moved to the north after the Ice Age ended.  The farmers arrived some time after hunting group had.  While the farmers who moved to Europe from the Middle East have typically been portrayed as dark skinned, while in actuality they had lighter skin than their European counterparts.  The farmers contributed to the European genome  by providing genetic material that made Europeans taller.

Not much is known about the Yamnaya, a group of herders who originated in Russia and Ukraine.  However the discovery of a new group of European ancestors sheds more light upon their origins.  Scientists had previously been unaware of the ancestry of the Yamnaya, however the discovery of the Caucasus hunter gathers helps to fill in those gaps.  Towards the end of the last Ice Age the Caucasus hunter gathers joined the Yamnaya, contributing their distinctive genetic makeup (the Caucasus hunter gathers were isolated due to the ice age, which led to their unique DNA) to the Yamnaya’s genome.  Eventually the Yamnaya would move into Europe where they would bring their metal working skills and the family of Indo-European languages that would eventually lead to the languages spoken in Europe today.  As much as half of the genetic material of Central and Northern Europeans can be traced back to the Yamnaya.  Because of the location of the Caucasus region, the people living in that area where well suited to influence populations in both Europe and Asia as many people moved through the region to migrate to other places.  Scientists such as Ron Pinhasi from University College Dublin claims that the discovery of this fourth population will continue to influence the fields of paleogeneomics and human evolution in both Europe and Asia.  Hopefully

http://time.com/4114604/human-ancestry-europe-fourth-strand/

http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29213892

http://news.sciencemag.org/archaeology/2015/06/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians

http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2015/11/16/Researchers-reveal-Europeans-fourth-ancestral-tribe/9831447685649/

One of the most valuable natural resources in the world in the world is the coral reef.  Coral reefs are one of the largest sources of biodiversity on the planet, supporting around, 4,000 species of fish and 800 species of hard corals in addition to plenty of other species.  Marine Biologists believe that that there could be as many as 1 to 8 million undiscovered species living on or near coral reefs.  Many of the organisms that live on coral reefs are being studied by scientists as possible cures for diseases such as cancer and arthritis.  Additionally, coral reefs are a valuable resource adding billions of dollars to the economy and providing barrier for the shoreline (thus preventing erosion and property damage).

Unfortunately coral reefs are in danger, due to a wide variety of factors.  Coral reefs can be damaged by storms and by long periods of low tides (if the tides remain too low for loo long the exposed coral can be damaged by the sunlight).  Humans can have a damaging effect on coral reefs as well.  One of the greatest threats that reefs can face comes in the form of pollution that results from dredging and runoff from agricultural activities.  Even sunscreen can be damaging to coral reefs as it contains oxybenzone, a chemical that is toxic to coral.  Once in the water pollutants can damage coral reefs by causing an increase in algae, thus smothering the corals. Scientists also believe that pollutants can contribute to coral diseases.  Reefs can so be threatened by divers who damage the reefs either intentionally (by removing pieces of coral from the reef) or unintentionally (by kicking or stepping on coral).  Destructive fishing techniques can be another source harm for these fragile environments.  One of the most damaging fishing techniques is deep water trawling, a method where fisherman drag a net along the bottom of the ocean floor in order to capture fish.  Often the nets become entangled in coral or they can tear coral away from the reef.

While there are many threats endangering coral reefs, marine biologists are looking to find ways to stop and prevent damage.  For example, satellite technology is being put to use by searching for harmful algal blooms.  NOAA has also deployed buoys to gather information on the potential sources of harm to coral reefs.  NOAA is also trying to save coral reefs by removing debris near reefs and trying to restore damaged reefs.  In Australia, scientists are trying to study the history of the Great Barrier Reef by examining cores of corals.  By learning about the history of the Great Barrier Reef scientists can learn about the reef could respond to climate change in the future.  Hopefully, through these efforts combined scientists can protect coral reefs for generations to come.

Schizophrenia is one of the most well known mental disorders.  As mass shootings seem to grow more and more common, people have begun to pay attention severe mental illness which in drastic instances can cause people to commit horrifying act of violence.  Schizophrenia is defined by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) as a chronic, severe brain disorder that can result in symptoms such as hearing voices that aren’t really there, paranoid thoughts, garbled speech, and sitting for long periods of time without moving or speaking.  Recently mental health specialists have developed a new treatment for those suffering from Schizophrenia.

In the past people suffering from Schizophrenia were treated with potent doses of antipsychotic drugs. While this method of treatment is effective for preventing hallucinations and some of the more severe side effects of Schizophrenia, it has some negative side effects including serious weight gain and tremors.

A new study to be published in the American Journal of Psychiatry recommends smaller doses of antipyschotic medicine and larger emphasis therapy and family support instead of the typical. more drug focused treatment.  The study (one of the most intensive trials performed in the United States) found that patients who were given the second method of treatment experienced greater improvement during the first two years of treatment than patients who underwent the traditional treatment for Schizophrenia.  Patients often have difficulty coping with the effects of antipsychotic medication, as much three fourths of patients on medication stop taking them after a year and a half.  As part of the study, mental health professionals attempted to lower the dosage of their patient’s medications (as much 50% in some cases).

The study also found that treating patients early on can have a significant effect on the progress of their recovery.  Researches found that when patients received treatment more closely to their first episode their treatment progressed at a far better rate than those who didn’t.  The study focused on people who had been unwell for less than 74 weeks before they began treatment; currently a Schizophrenic person undergoes treatment around a year and half after their first episode.

While it is exciting to see a new, improved technique for treating people struggling with Schizophrenia there are some problems.  The new method of treatment would require coordination between those administrating drugs (while the administration of antipyschotics is reduced, it is not eliminated), therapists, and the patients.  Such a level of coordinated care will probably not be available for all patients immediately, but hopefully it can be in the future.

In the 1980s the movie Back to the Future Part II predicted what life would be like in the future.  Specifically today, October 21, 2015.  In honor of the day that Marty McFly made it to future, many news outlets are looking back at the predictions made the movie’s writers.  Surprisingly, much of the technology seen in the movie is in use today such as drones hoverboards, and fingerprint recognition.

In Back to the Future Part II a drone operated by news station captures the arrest of one of the movie’s villains.  Now in present day, drones have become increasingly common.  However, drones can not be used for commercial purpose unless they receive special permission Federal Aviation Admission (FAA).  In order to attempt to loosen the FAA’s rules, many news companies have begun to work with Virginia test in an attempt to try and find a way to incorporate drones with modern technology.  Meanwhile drones have also become a commonplace in warfare and Google has recently unveiled plans for a drone delivery service.  Luckily for Google, a California bill (Marty McFly’s home state) that would have prevented “unmanned bills from flying 350 feet above property with property bills giving their permission first” was not passed, allowing the role of drones to potentially expand.

In one of the most famous scenes of the movie, Marty Mcfly chases his nemesis through the town square on a hoverboard.  While there are now hands free scooters that are widely known as hoverboards, even though they technically have wheels.  Despite this, Lexus and a start up known as Arx Pax are working to develop wheels less hoverboards.  However the boards only work over conductive surfaces, so they couldn’t be used everywhere.

Another piece of technology predicted by Back to the Future Part II, is fingerprint recognition.  Fingerprints can be used to unlock an iPhone, access bank accounts, and even unlock the doors of a person’s home.  The movie even manages to predict the problem of fingerprint theft.  Back to the Future made other accurate predictions about phone technology (beyond the use fingerprint recognition.  In one scene a character donates money using a device similar to a tablet, or a cell phone.  Additionally, at various points the characters video chat (anticipating advances such as Facetime and Skype).  Despite taking place almost 30 years ago, Back to the Future Part II still manages to predict many of the modern advancements that we now have today.

When people think about seasonal weather events, they typically think of events such as hurricanes or wildfires.  However, there are other seasonal weather events that have a great affect on the climate of the Americas.  El Niño and La Niña are two weather patterns that have a great affect one the climate of the Americas.

El Niño and La Niña are part of what is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation Cycle, or the ENSO cycle.  The ENSO cycle refers to changes in the temperature of the ocean and atmosphere in the Pacific Ocean, specifically between the International Dateline and 120 degrees West.  La Niña is the term used for the cooling of water and El Niño refers to the warming of water. Episodes of El Niño and La Niña typically occur every 2-7 years, and on average last 9-12 months, but they can last longer.  El Niño usually occurs more often than La Niña.

El Niño typically leads to warmer than average temperatures across western and central America and less precipitation in the Ohio Valley and the Pacific Northwest.  The Northeast will experience slightly warmer temperatures, and the southern United States will have a cooler than normal winter.  The southern US will also have more precipitation this winter, providing some relief to drought-stricken California, although not enough to end the drought.

This year El Niño is supposed to be especially strong, and in some locations people are already feeling the impact.  The impact of El Niño is widefelt across the global.  Lack of rain in Vietnam has farmers worried about having enough water to irrigate their crops, while Sumatra, Borneo, and New Guinea are struggling to put out wildfires due to the lack of precipitation.  To make matters even worse, smoke from the wildfires has caused air quality in Singapore to decrease.  The increased rainfall could are harm Florida’s orange crop, which is already suffering from a citrus-greening disease (the disease grow stronger in wet environments).  The warming waters will cold-water species of fish to swim northward or deeper into the ocean to escape the warmer water.  As the fish move away, bird populations must migrate as well in order to remain fed.  Another effect of El Niño is there will be less severe storms in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.  While this is in many ways a good thing, unfortunately many inland tropical areas require the precipitation provided by El Niño.  Nevertheless, El Niño is sure to have an impact on the weather this year.

At some point, everybody is taught the dangers of global warming.  A lot of the conservation centers around the threat that climate change poses the different forms of wildlife, however due to severe weather events such as Super Storm Sandy more attention has turned towards the danger that climate change poses for our cities and even some countries.

At this point most people know the basic theory of global warming.  Emissions from factories, cars, and other energy consuming sources fill the Earth’s atmosphere and forming a barrier, trapping sunlight and increasing the Earth’s temperature.  One of the side effects of global warming is melting ice caps which can lead to higher sea levels.  Scientists estimate that if we do nothing to curb carbon emission by the year 2100 sea levels could rise as much as 14 feet.  A recent study predicted “lock-in” dates for different coastal cities.  Lock in dates are years when scientists project that reduced carbon emissions will do nothing to prevent more than half of a city’s population from becoming displaced.  For example Norfolk has a lock-in date of 2045 and New York City has a lock-in date of 2085 (as a worst case scenario).  However, some scientists believe that the lock-in dates for certain cities have already passed, such as Miami and New Orleans which are built on low lying land (Miami’s situation is worsened due to its “porous limestone bedrock”).

Meanwhile several states are also in danger of losing land to rising sea levels.  California, New York, and Louisiana all face the possibility of the sea permanently encroaching upon their land. And in Florida 40% of the population lives on land that could potentially become permanently flooded.

Rising sea levels are so dangerous that they actually threaten entire nations.  Several small islands must face the possibility that their nations could disappear in the not so distant future.  For example the Maldives sit at 7 feet above sea level, and the government fears that the nation could end up becoming completely submerged.  As a publicity stunt, the members of the Maldives’ cabinet held an underwater meeting, where they signed a document advocating cuts in carbon emissions.  The cabinet members held the meeting because they hoped that the stunt would galvanize action at the UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen.  Hopefully, as more people grow more aware of the dangers of climate change, more people will take action to preserve threatened coastal areas and islands.

One of the biggest stories that has recently come about is the news about there being free flowing water on Mars.  This is not the first time that scientists have discussed the presence of water on the red planet.  In 2013, scientists were aware of ice located below the surface of Mars and of the past presence of liquid water above ground due to the presence of now dry riverbeds.  Evidence supports the theory that ancient Martian rivers formed as a result of precipitation.  However, for a long time scientist were unsure about the existence of liquid water on the presence of Mars.

So how did the scientists at NASA find evidence of free flowing water on Mars?  Through the use of an imaging spectrometer on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter NASA scientists were able to discover evidence of hydrated minerals in areas where there are strange dark streaks.  The dark streaks seem to change over time in accordance with seasons, and it is believed that streaks themselves are liquid water or are formed by liquid water.  The streaks seem to only exist during spring and summer, and to disappear in the fall and winter.

Due to Mars’ thin atmosphere water can boil at temperatures as low as 10 degrees Celsius.  But water that is attached to salts does not evaporate.  The exact source of the water is still unclear.  It is possible that salt absorb water vapor from the atmosphere, forming pools.  Another potential source is underground aquifers that freeze and thaw according to the seasons.  The presence of underground aquifers would have a great deal of scientific significance because it would increase the possibility of the existence of biological life on Mars, as an underground aquifer would be more stable than the surface water above ground.  However, scientists are still unsure about the presence of microbial life on Mars.  Nevertheless, with this new discovery the calls to send humans to Mars will only grow greater.

As unfortunate as it is, lying is an incredibly common occurrence.  Most of us told a lie or been lied to at some point.  But why do people do it, especially in situations when they could easily be caught?

Lying is often a symptom of narcissism.  Narcissists often lie in an effort to make themselves look better and to obtain fame and fortune.  Narcissists are constantly seeking attention, so it does not matter to them what they have to do to get it, as long as they have it.

Because most people don’t lie as much or as drastically as narcissists, it is easy to ignore our own tendencies to exaggerate or downplay the truth.  Pamela Meyer, who has written extensively about lying, estimates that the average person lies 10-200 times per day.

So why is it the number of times the average person lies is so high? There are multiple reasons for this.  People often lie so that they can portray themselves in a more positive light, for example only telling their side of the story.  Another lie that people frequently tell is simply by omitting the truth, again often in an effort to make themselves look better.

Then again is lying always such a bad thing?  People often lie with good intentions, to avoid hurting somebody else’s feelings. For example a person might pretend like a friend’s haircut even they think it actually looks terrible.  These types of lies occur very often, and are 10 to 20 times more common than lies where people pretend to like something than they actually do not.  Women are especially prone to telling lies in order to protects someone’s feelings, men much less so.  Instead men are more likely to lie about themselves.

Additionally, culture can affect a person’s attitude towards lying.  For example, as Alison Kornet writes in Psychology today “Only about half of elderly Korean Americans believe that patients diagnosed with life-threatening metastatic cancer should be told the truth about their condition. In contrast, nearly 90 percent of Americans of European or African descent felt that the terminally ill should be confronted with the truth.”

However, there are some groups of people who are less likely to lie.  People with meaningful same sex relationships are less likely to lie than people who don’t, as are people who score high on psychological test measuring responsibility.  Additionally, people with depression are less likely to lie.

One of the most famous experiments is psychology is the marshmallow test.  The test was conducted around 1970 by Walter Mischel, a pychologist at Stanford.  The experiment consisted of placing a marshmallow in front of a four year old, and informing them that they could have one marshmallow now, or they could wait while the person conducting the experiment left the room.  If they didn’t eat the one marshmallow placed in front of them until the return the psychologist than they could have two marshmallows.  In videos of the experiment you can see children going to extreme lengths to avoid consuming the marshmallow.  The children shift in their seats, hide their eyes and even bang their heads upon the table, all in an effort to avoid eating the marshmallow.  In one trial an Oreo was used instead of a marshmallow, and one of the boys took the Oreo apart, ate filling and then set it back down.

The real breakthrough of the marshmallow test was it revealed exactly how important learning self-control as a child can be to creating future success.  Children who could wait longer before eating the marshmallow had better social skills in middle school as well as higher SAT scores, college completion rates, and incomes. The marshmallow test actually turned ended up being a more accurate predictor of SAT scores than IQ tests. Children who could not wait as long before they ate the marshmallow had a higher incarceration rates and were more likely to struggle with drug and alcohol addiction.

But why did some of the children in the experiment have more self control than others?  The children who were able to wait before they ate the marshmallow had usually come from more stable homes, while children who ate the marshmallow immediately were more likely to have more stressful home lives.  Kids also did better if they did not look right at the marshmallow, if they were able to distract it they found it easier to avoid giving into temptation and eating it.  Later, Mischel extended the experiment by having children use their imagination.  If they imagined that they were looking at a picture of a marshmallow or a could wait about three times longer than children who did not.  By imagining the marshmallow as something else, the children were able to use different, less impulse oriented pathways in their brains.  So the marshmallow test played an influential role in explaining the importance of self-control.

Source: Brooks, David. The Social Animal. Pine Street, U.K.: Short, 2011. Print.

When discussing the dangers of waste the environment most people focus exclusively on large items such as plastic bags or stray fishing nets.  However much smaller items can pose just as much of a threat.  Microbeads are small pieces of plastic that are often found in products such toothpaste or face wash where they are used as exfoliators.   The problem with microbeads is that because they are so small water filters are unable to prevent them from entering bodies of water.

Once microbeads enter a waterway they are often consumed by fish, birds, and turtles who mistake the beads for food (the microbeads especially bear a strong resemblance to fish eggs).  Once the beads are ingested they can quickly become a problem, causing ailments in fish and poising animals from the toxic chemicals they had picked up form the surrounding environment.  Those toxins could then be passed on to other animals higher in the food chain that consumed the animals that had ingested the microbeads.  This is even more dangerous due to the threat of biological magnification.  When an animal consumes a toxic substance and it is not digested, it accumulates inside of the animal, and the toxin becomes more and more concentration as organisms are consumed in the food chain.  Furthering the problem is the fact that beads are not biodegradable, and could be stuck in waterways for an incredibly long time.

Most organizations have recognized the danger that microbeads pose to the environment are working to find a solution.  Many state governments are attempting to come up with legislation to ban microbeads.  However, there are still problems.  Some of the bills would allow companies to use different, more biodegradable forms of plastics.  While some of these plastics are indeed biodegradable, they still pose a threat to wildlife.  For example polyactic acid can degrad more quickly than other plastics, but only under conditions not usually found in marine environments.  However, others are worried that too strict regulations could prevent possible solutions.  For example, a start up in California has developed an alternatives to microbeads made out of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) which is made naturally by bacteria and could dissolve in a month.  The founder of the startup, Molly Morse fears that the language of a bill in California would ban her product as well.  There are some other products that don’t use plastics at all and use items such as cocoa beans to serve the same purpose.  So when shopping for toothpaste or facial scrubs in the future, make an effort to avoid microbeads.

Sources:

http://time.com/4033917/facewash-microbeads-fish/

http://www.npr.org/2014/05/21/313157701/why-those-tiny-microbeads-in-soap-may-pose-problem-for-great-lakes

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/23/business/energy-environment/california-takes-step-to-ban-microbeads-used-in-soaps-and-creams.html?_r=0

http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/player/lesson13/l13la1.html

Most people know about the damage that occurs with to professional athletes because of their demanding jobs, especially in recent years with football and concussions.  However, athletics are not the only activities that can be damaging to a person’s health.  For example, ballet can be incredibly damaging for those who perform it.  One of my best friends dances ballet and she frequently complains about broken toenails and pains in her toenails.  However, the problems that professional dancers face are often even worse.

Ballet dancers often have problems with their feet because female dancers wear pointe shoes. Despite their delicate appearance, pointe shoes are incredibly sturdy.  According to the Pittsburg Ballet Theatre, a small box made from fabric, cardboard, and paper that is hardened by glue is placed in the tip of the shoe so that the dancer can balance her entire weight on her toes.  Dancers must train for years to ensure that their their ankles and legs are capable of withstanding the strain of balancing their entire weight on their toes.  Dancing on pointe can damage the feet of any dancer, but is especially harmful for professional dancers.

As stated in The Guardian, the problems that dancers face are wide-ranging from black nails to corns to blisters.  Because professional dancers have to be in pointe shoes so often, minor issues can become serious problems.  For example, corns can develop into ulcers and nails can thicken and grow hard skin underneath.  Male dancers don’t wear pointe shoes so the problems that they face are different.  Often male dancers have issues with ankle and muscular injuries because they do more jumping and lifting.

Ballet companies provide different services such as physiotherapists, podiatrists, and masseurs  to help their dancers with any ailments that they might have.  However, dancers don’t always follow the advice of medical professionals.  As Peter Norman, a British pychiatrist, stated “I see many problems that require a week or a month’s rest. But ‘take a night off’ is as much as I can say, or they wouldn’t come back to me again.” Dancers will also attempt to treat themselves through techniques such as wrapping their feet and shoving old tights into the bottoms of their shoes.  Other attempts to treat foot problems can be much more troubling.  For example, dancers occasionally utilize glue to  make their feet stick to the insides of their shoes, and sometimes even use scissors and razor blades on their feet.  Obviously,  the health problems that ballet dancers can be incredibly severe.

Most of us probably remember the enormous earthquake that struck Japan a couple of years ago.  The earthquake and the tsunami it generated devastated Japan, causing $10 million dollars worth of damage and killing almost 230,000 people.  As if that was not enough, the earthquake and tsunami caused a meltdown at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant.   While I’m sure that all of us were horrified by the effect of the earthquake on Japan, it is easy to believe that destruction from the disaster was limited only to that region.  However, years later the effects of the earthquake are still being felt, mostly in the form of debris has been swept into the ocean.

Even before the earthquake there had been a problem with trash from Japan drifting across the Pacific towards the U.S. (and vice versa).  Trash can become caught in ocean currents like the Kuroshio Current carrying it away from Japan’s shores into the Pacific and possibly even to North America.

Some of the debris will end up trapped in one of infamous “Garbage Islands”, more formally known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.  The Garbage Patches (there are actually two, an east and a west) are located in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.  The Gyre is formed by four currents in the Pacific all moving in a clockwise direction.  The rotation of the gyre draws the trash into the calm stable center, where much of it becomes trapped.  Some of the debris escapes the gyre and is carried by ocean currents to the North American coastline.

No matter where marine debris ends up it is a danger to the wildlife.  Many animals mistake trash for food (for example loggerhead sea turtles often mistake plastic bags for jellyfish), which can create cause them to fall ill.  Marine mammals, such as seals, can become tangled in abandoned fishing nets.  The detritus can also block algae and plankton from receiving sunlight, causing the organisms to die off.  Such an event would be disastrous, as it would kill of organisms that depend autotrophs for food, creating a ripple effect throughout the food chain.  In addition to the normal dangers posed by marine debris, the tsunami brings specific problems as well.  In 2012, a dock from a Japanese shipyard washed up on an Oregon beach carrying dozens of species native to Japan, three of which were potentially invasive.  Oregon officials ended up blow torching the dock in order to prevent an outbreak of invasive species (species nonnative to an area that have the potential kill off indigenous species).

While marine detritus is a problem at the best of times, the tsunami only worsened an already bad situation.  The Japanese Government estimates that about 1.5 millions tons of garbage were generated by the tsunami, but it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what debris is from the tsunami, and what is just regular trash.  However, people been able to find at least some of the detritus from the tsunami.  Officials in Alaska have noticed a difference in the amount and type of trash along the state’s shores. While NOAA has found both possible and confirmed sightings of debris from the tsunami in both the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre and along the U.S. coastline.

Often when a natural disaster occurs it is easy to focus only the problems in that region.  And rightly so, after all it is the people and environment of that region that are most in need of aid.  Nevertheless, it is important to remember that the effects of events such as Japanese earthquake have a scope far beyond their origin.

Hi, my name is Caroline Ackiewicz.  I am originally from Lancaster County, PA. Lancaster has lots farms, so much of the county looks like this.

I am currently enrolled in DUS, so I am undecided.  The fact that I am still not quite sure what I want to do played a large role in my decision to come to Penn State.  I wanted to come to a large school because there is a wider variety of majors. I am not majoring in science because I hate math, and so much of science involves math. I decided to take this course because my adviser recommended it to me, and I thought it would provide an overview of different areas of science.