Sickle cell anemia is a very well-known blood disorder that affects around 20 million people worldwide, making it a relatively rare disease, however, why does it occur? This is a very interesting topic that covers the big picture of the inheritance of genetic diseases and why it occurs! In this blog, we will be examining the mechanisms by which sickle cell disease occurs and examining why they lead to the pain people with this disease experience.

“Sickle cell disease”, or SCD is an umbrella term for inherited blood disorders concerning the protein hemoglobin. (cdc.gov) Sickle cell anemia is the most severe form of this disease (HbSS or SCA), containing an abnormal form of hemoglobin, labeled as hemoglobin “S”. This mutation is carried by both parents, increasing the severity of the parent disease and bringing forth the notorious “sickle” shape and rigidity to the red blood cells that are at the root of most complications affiliated with the disease. Some of these complications people with SCA face include episodes of chronic pain, delayed growth, vision problems, and a weakened immune system due to the constant blockage of blood flow in the vessels from the mutated cells.  

Sickle cell anemia falls under the category of autosomal recessive diseases, meaning both parents are carriers (also known as heterozygous and noted with an “Ss” genotype) for a specific disease and give their offspring a twenty-five percent chance of obtaining its recessive gene. The genetic nature of this disease is what causes the abnormality to begin with. If an offspring contained this recessive gene, it would be found on chromosome 11 p15.5, which includes hereditary diseases caused by abnormal or insufficient production of hemoglobin. This aligns with the abnormal property that SCA hemoglobin has, validating its location in that specific chromosome. 

The structure of the hemoglobin molecule includes two globin alpha chains and two globin beta chains, each containing around 150 amino acids for a total of about 600 in one molecule. During the process of protein synthesis, the base sequence of codon six, normally “GAG” in a non-mutated gene, would code for the hydrophilic glutamic acid as an amino acid. However, the hereditary mutation from the recessive “ss” gene means that there would forever be a substitution of the base thymine in place of adenine, coding “GTG”, or valine instead. This in turn causes a single point mutation and change in the sequence of the beta chains that directly correspond to the oxygen-carrying property of hemoglobin. 

Although the nitrogenous base substitution only affected two out of the six hundred amino acids, the change in functional groups from the polar glutamic acid to nonpolar valine caused not only structural, but functional changes in the hemoglobin protein. This change in the beta chains disrupts the sequence of amino acids and causes the hemoglobin molecule to misfold and assemble into long, rod-like fibers that cannot adequately hold the same amount of oxygen as a regular, disk-shaped red blood cell. As a result, the hemoglobin is not able to perform its job in transferring oxygen throughout the body to the same extent, as it tends to clog arteries and blood flow while moving from one area to another as opposed to flexibly and effortlessly doing so.  

In an attempt to compensate for the abnormality seen in the sickle cells, the frequency, demand, and amount of proteins focused on cell repairs increases. Examples include antibodies, which work to fight off the more recurring and severe illnesses due to damaged spleen, structural proteins focused on maintaining the cytoskeleton of the cell, and glycolytic enzymes focused on the production of ATP in an environment with minimal oxygen and constant cell death (anemia).

Using this new knowledge of abnormal hemoglobin, it can be determined that the majority of symptoms, for example, chronic pain, vision problems, delayed growth, and a weakened immune system, are due to the rod-like shape of the misfolded protein: blocking important arteries and impairing organs and oxygen storage.

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Sources:

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3882043/

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/sickle-cell-anemia/symptoms-causes/syc-20355876 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/autosomal-recessive-inheritance-pattern/img-20007457#:~:text=To%20have%20an%20autosomal%20recessive,dominant%20gene)%20for%20the%20condition. 

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/facts.html 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8006275/#:~:text=Red%20cells%20have%20an%20average,from%20the%20circulation%20every%20second.  

https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/hemoglobin  

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/proteins-and-amino-acids/a/orders-of-protein-structure 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22238/#:~:text=SCA%20is%20an%20autosomal%20recessive,5. 

https://www.genome.gov/Genetic-Disorders/Sickle-Cell-Disease 

https://www.nih.gov/news-events/nih-research-matters/fixing-sickle-cell-disease-gene 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/autosomal-recessive-inheritance-pattern/img-20007457#:~:text=To%20have%20an%20autosomal%20recessive,dominant%20gene)%20for%20the%20condition. 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5381778/#:~:text=Mutations%20in%20the%20HBB%20gene%2C%20which%20is%20located%20on%20chromosome,cell%20anemia%20and%20%CE%B2%2Dthalassemia. 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25282490/#:~:text=Sickle%20cell%20disease%20is%20associated,is%20replaced%20by%20valine%2C%20hydrophobic. 

https://dnalc.cshl.edu/view/15968-What-causes-sickle-cell-.html#:~:text=The%20beta%20globin%20protein%20is,behavior%20of%20red%20blood%20cells. 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3068560/ 

It’s finally the wonderful season of winter! I may be biased, but nothing is better than looking outside and seeing everything beautifully covered in white! In the past few years we have received less snow than on average, however, will that change this winter? 

One way we can determine a general trend of snowfall is through two opposing climate patterns, La Niña and El Niño. These are patterns under the umbrella of ENSO that affect ocean temperatures, wind patterns, rainfall, and surface pressure (climate.gov) across the globe and that break the normal condition of upwelling: where deep cold water rises to the surface, replacing water pushed away by the winds. An El Niño occurs when the easterly trade winds across the Pacific weaken, ocean temperatures in the Pacific rise, and rainfall decreases over Indonesia and increases across the Pacific. Relating to this, the rising air motion increases, and this specific increase in Indonesia leads to higher surface pressure and dryness. Considering this information, what is a La Niña and how is it different compared to an El Niño? 

La Niña is the opposite of El Niño: during this climate pattern, the surface winds across the Pacific are stronger, ocean temperatures in the Pacific are cooler and warmer near Indonesia, and rainfall increases over Indonesia and decreases over the Pacific. Additionally, there is more sinking air motion over the Pacific and more rising air motion, and lower surface pressure in Indonesia. We have been in La Niña for the past 3 years and are finally beginning to shift into the El Niño phase.

But how does this relate to predicted snowfall? 

First, it’s important to note that although certain climate patterns can raise or lower the odds for snow in certain regions, they never ensure their occurrence. This pattern generally brings cooler and wetter weather to the southern part of the United States, while the northern part experiences drier and warmer conditions. During an El Niño, a jet stream carries moisture and precipitation across the southern part of the United States. This generally increases the chances of snowfall over the southern part of the country, while also decreasing these chances in the northern part of the North American continent. The map below depicts the expected snowfall for January to March of 2024, where the blue regions represent wetter and snowier predicted areas and the tan regions represent drier regions. 

Overall, multiple factors other than climate conditions can affect predicted snowfall and these predictions may stray from reality, but since we are entering what will be a moderate-to-strong El Niño, we can most likely expect stronger El Niño-like patterns, meaning more snow for the southern United States, and less snow for the northern portion!

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Sources:

https://www.cnn.com/2023/11/03/weather/us-snowfall-maps-el-nino-winter-climate/index.html#:~:text=This%20pattern%20comes%20from%20the,more%20amplified%20its%20impact%20becomes. 

https://www.climate.gov/news-features/blogs/snow-pain-snow-gain-how-does-el-nino-affect-snowfall-over-north-america 

https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/el-ni%C3%B1o-and-la-ni%C3%B1a-frequently-asked-questions 

https://www.climatecentral.org/climate-matters/local-and-global-effects-of-el-nino-and-la-nina-2023 

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/el-nino-la-nina#:~:text=While%20El%20Ni%C3%B1o%20raises%20the,how%20they%20influence%20our%20weather.

Most people have probably already heard of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or ADHD, but, how many people know what someone with ADHD experiences? This blog will be a little different from others I have done, where I will share some of my experiences as someone diagnosed with ADHD. 

Just as some basic background, the Mayo Clinic defines ADHD as “… a combination of persistent problems, such as difficulty sustaining attention, hyperactivity and impulsive behavior.” It is associated with low levels of neurotransmitters transmitting between the prefrontal cortex area and basal ganglia, in this case, the neurotransmitters dopamine and noradrenaline which are associated with regulating the reward system, mood, and attention. These low dopamine levels call for individuals with ADHD to seek out rewards to overcome this deficiency. There are various levels of severity to this neurodevelopmental condition, however, generally, symptoms start and can be recognized from ages 3 to 12 and can continue into adulthood. 3 types of ADHD presentation can affect the specific symptoms of this disorder. Those being predominantly inattentive, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, or combined. 

Predominantly inattentive individuals find it more difficult to finish tasks, focus attention, or follow regular conversation. These individuals generally are more inattentive to the world around them. Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive individuals are constantly fidgeting, talk excessively, and are impulsive towards everything around them. Finally, combined is a combination of the two presentations, where symptoms are spread relatively equally indicating either presentation. Overall, having any form of ADHD is a hindrance to everyday tasks that make life more difficult than it should be.

As someone with inattentive type ADHD, I had shown signs of inattention ever since I was little which hinted to my ADHD early on. I have trouble focusing on one task for an extended time, I take longer to process information, I have trouble finishing tasks on time, staying on top of my workload, and sometimes zone out when others are talking to me, and more. I love learning, which is why I decided to go to college and pursue my interest in studying medicine, however, having ADHD constantly feels like a rope tugging me away from the goals I know I can achieve. The experience of ADHD is often misconstrued, and many people will deny its existence or claim it’s just “laziness”. This is far from the truth as ADHD has had a biological basis for decades before medication was even created for it.

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Sources:

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/adhd/facts.html 

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/balanced/202302/why-is-the-prevalence-of-adhd-increasing 

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/adhd/symptoms-causes/syc-20350889?utm_source=Google&utm_medium=abstract&utm_content=Attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder&utm_campaign=Knowledge-panel 

https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/adhd-what-you-need-to-know 

https://www.healthline.com/health/adhd/inattentive-type#behavioral-therapy 

https://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/features/hyperactivity-reality-or-excuse#:~:text=While%20there’s%20sometimes%20a%20grain,anything%2C%20ADHD%20is%20often%20underdiagnosed. 

https://www.news-medical.net/health/How-does-ADHD-Affect-the-Brain.aspx

In 1859 in his book, On the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin proposed the fundamental idea of descent with modification, or natural selection, that we still use today as the mode from which the origin of species has evolved. In this book, the only figure he provided for his readers was the figure you all see below. Despite the observed simplicity of this figure, it can be used to represent the whole of evolution from ancestral species, to modern species today. In this blog, I will be explaining this revolutionary figure by Darwin, who is regarded as the father of evolution, and why it was so important to our current knowledge of evolution. 

Darwin created this figure to represent the evolutionary history of life and the mechanisms by which species evolve, depicting the ancestral-descendant relationships of species and how variations have led to divergence, natural selection, and eventually speciation. On the y-axis, we can see time represented in Roman numerals, while on the x-axis, we observe the ancestral species that the modern-day species (at the top of the figure) have evolved from. Each different letter represents a different species, and the exponents associated with it depict the variation from that species and divergence over several generations. Some of these lineages have branches coming from species, representing the natural variation they have and how that variation can be either favored in an environment and increase the fitness of a species (ability to survive and reproduce) and continue through lineages, or be unfavored by the environmental conditions and decrease the fitness of a species, eventually eliminated that species. This process is called natural selection. 

Two fundamental questions Darwin was able to answer by creating this diagram were, first, how are species so diverse, yet so well adapted to their respective environments, and why despite all of these differences, how do species still share similarities? Through natural selection, natural variants in a population will either be favored (be successful) and form new lineages/new species, diverging from the ancestral species and being adapted to its habitat (fit), or go extinct if the variants are not favored or well suited for the habitat (not fit). This explains the diversity of species, as adaptive evolution through natural selection leads to speciation and divergence from a common ancestor. Similarities between species can be explained through the lineages and common evolutionary ancestry. Darwin is able to brilliantly summarize and illustrate these fundamental concepts in a diagram that truly represents the evolutionary history of life!

Have you ever considered exercising consistently before? If you do and actively exercise, that’s great! You’ve probably noticed changes in your body over time and overall increased mental wellness and well-being. If you have or haven’t considered this yet, what is holding you back? In this post, I will be diving into the benefits of consistent exercise specifically in areas of physical and mental health. 

According to healthdirect.gov, a national healthcare service, even getting 30 minutes of exercise a day most days a week is enough time for your body to stay healthy. Yet, so many people today don’t even meet this number because they feel they might not have the time. However, the exercise you want to do doesn’t even have to include going to the gym. Some methods of staying active could be through bicycling, taking walks, and swimming. 

By consistently exercising, the body will gradually show signs of improvement in both physical and mental health. Some physical benefits of exercising include reduced risks for cardiovascular diseases, obesity, cancer, and more. Additionally, it helps with the management of weight and the building of stronger muscles within the body. This allows the individual to understand whether or not to bulk and take in a calorie surplus, or cut and take in a calorie deficit to lose weight and gain more muscle definition. Going to the gym and lifting weights has been shown to help increase or maintain muscle mass and strength, protecting bones, joints, and muscles as the body begins to age and deteriorate. 

Mentally, exercise can help individuals tremendously. Regularly exercising can boost memory, aid with mental health issues, and reduce overall stress (healthdirect.gov). Exercise releases endorphins, chemicals in your brain that make a person feel good and energize their spirits. When these hormones are released, they send a message from the brain to the rest of the body to relieve pain and stress, which can help calm anxiety, depression, and other disorders. Additionally, other hormones like dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels are elevated through physical activity, elevating our focus without the use of external substances. (helpguide.org)

It’s a more important time than ever to consider picking up exercising considering the number of individuals with low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety has shown an increase in recent years:

“Even before the pandemic, anxiety and depression were becoming more common among children and adolescents, increasing 27 percent and 24 percent respectively from 2016 to 2019. By 2020, 5.6 million kids (9.2%) had been diagnosed with anxiety problems and 2.4 million (4.0%) had been diagnosed with depression.” (Georgetown University Center for Children and Families) 

Since this issue is more relevant today, I would highly advise every one of you to consider those numbers and this alarming state of poor mental health our country is experiencing and wonder how you can take care of yourselves by taking the time to experience the benefits of exercise. 

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Sources:

https://www.helpguide.org/articles/healthy-living/the-mental-health-benefits-of-exercise.htm 

https://ccf.georgetown.edu/2022/03/24/research-update-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-on-the-rise/ 

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1470658/#:~:text=Exercise%20improves%20mental%20health%20by,self%2Desteem%20and%20cognitive%20function.&text=Exercise%20has%20also%20been%20found,self%2Desteem%20and%20social%20withdrawal. 

https://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/pa-health/index.htm#:~:text=Being%20physically%20active%20can%20improve,ability%20to%20do%20everyday%20activities.

HAPPY FALL!!!

The best part of the year is just beginning! Prepare for a season full of football, comfy sweaters, pumpkin spice lattes, HomeGoods and T.J. Maxx runs, the color-changing of the leaves, and weather that begins to cool down from its warm predecessor, but is somehow just right. The love for fall has shown to be widespread around the United States, with 45% of Americans declaring it to be their favorite season. This is nearly double the next favorite (Summer with 24%) according to a recent survey from ValleyPenguin. Why do Americans love this season so much though? 

If you’re here now, you are most likely aware (I hope) that this blog is about diving into the scientific explanations of what constitutes the world. Whether or not you’d like to admit it, there’s a scientific explanation for almost anything, and explaining the psychology of why most of the country holds this opinion of fall is no exception. 

The psychology behind this phenomenon can stem from multiple factors like perception, weather, and comfort, just to name a few. The perception the majority of people tend to hold for autumn comes from past experiences and nostalgia that pre-condition them to feel excited. We begin to anticipate events like Halloween, decorating our houses, going back to school, and seeing friends that condition us to unconsciously make associations with these times that make us the happiest, building the excitement up to fall. 

However, just as there are positive perceptions of fall, there are also those that associate the very things that are seen in a positive light by another with a sign that things are turning to the worse. Psychologist Kathryn Roecklein at the University of Pittsburgh’s Department of Psychology claims that “People who are dreading the winter are not able to enjoy all these fall holidays and all the things that the broader population loves,..“ and feel disconnected from the paradise of the world perceived by others, trapped in their negative associations of the season. 

One anatomical contributor that is very interesting to observe is the idea that the cooling of temperatures has a stimulating effect on our brains. Generally, normal brain functions like forming memories, thinking, and learning are linked to internal glucose levels and efficiency in the brain (Harvard Medical School). In the summer, the brain uses up this glucose from the brain to cool down the body which can lead to effects like fogginess and decreased brain efficiency. Cooler temperatures have shown an increase in clarity and preservation in glucose levels, facilitating normal brain functions, according to psychologist Yasmine Saad. If you’re having trouble concentrating this fall from school or work, try taking a walk outside to breathe and regain some clarity. Take a look at the scenery and flora around you as a bonus! 

Finally, the social aspect of comfort can play a role in a favorable opinion towards this season. The transition from summer to fall oversees the shift from bikini season to the classic sweater weather. With the colder weather comes a decrease in pressure to maintain the “ideal body” type that typically leads to negative self-image and body shaming during warmer seasons. This climate calls for warmer clothes and the normalization of bulk clothing that decreases harmful stereotypes that can bring a level of comfort towards this point in the year for individuals. 

Overall, an affinity for fall is very common in the United States due to the culture and the perceptions built around it by the individual, however, it is not for everyone. It can have an effect on increased brain efficiency and clarity that can increase productivity during colder climates, which paired with nostalgia can make this part of the year more desirable to others.

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Sources:

https://www.verywellmind.com/the-psychological-reason-why-we-love-fall-so-much-5205863  

https://www.eviemagazine.com/post/the-psychological-scientific-reasons-on-why-we-love-fall-autumn 

https://www.bustle.com/wellness/why-are-people-so-obsessed-with-fall-experts-explain-your-love-for-autumn-18735529 

https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/fall-is-americans-favorite-season-survey-shows/ 

https://hms.harvard.edu/news-events/publications-archive/brain/sugar-brain 

Shifting gears to a modern-day topic, issues like climate change and overall global warming have been observed to increase even more rapidly in recent years with increased human activity and innovation. We may not have had to monitor this issue as heavily in the past, however, with the increasing population and industry, we could be living through its effects more frequently in our lives, making it an important topic to be knowledgeable about.

Global warming describes the increase in global temperature and encompasses the effects of climate change. It’s important in your life because the use of fossil fuels contributes to the increased abundance of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere that cause a temperature rise, affecting weather patterns, flooding, ecosystems, and human health. 

When the sun radiates light onto the Earth, some of the light is absorbed and some is sent back into space. Instead of simply transmitting back into space, however, greenhouse gasses will trap some of the light under a “blanket” in the atmosphere to heat the earth in what is called the greenhouse effect. This is a natural effect and is generally seen as beneficial since it keeps the planet warm, increasing the annual temperature to a stable amount each year. The increased concentration of these greenhouse gasses, however, traps excess heat from the sun and warms the earth even further, increasing the annual temperature by speeding up the process of warming. 

The main causes of the rise in global annual temperature can be attributed to natural influences, human activity, and industry evolution in the past two hundred years. Naturally occurring processes like volcanic eruptions can affect global warming, however, it is not as comparable to the role that humans play. The burning of fossil fuels as energy: coal, oil, and gas, revolutionized technology in the early Industrial Revolution by creating new and more efficient means for energy production. Factories were built, capitalizing on these new forms of energy to maximize company output performance. Modern industry continues to use fossil fuels in the creation of their products and has given the power to individuals with the sale of gas cars.   

This information is important to know because the majority of people own cars and are contributing to the growing amount of fossil fuels in the atmosphere simply by owning a gas car. That isn’t to say that there aren’t other methods that produce more emissions, but it is important to understand our role in the climate crisis and how we can as individuals help lower those levels. As is being seen now, the rise in global temperature levels from human activity in the past two hundred years is causing oceans to become more warm and acidic, killing the ecosystems that live there, causing more floods with rising sea levels, fluctuating climate, and increasing the likelihood and danger of infectious diseases from air pollution. Climate change and global warming are only growing out of demand for these fossil fuels, which unfortunately means that the effects we are seeing now will only become more common and begin to grow more irreversible as time progresses. 

Overall, it is important to be knowledgeable about climate change because it is an issue that has become more relevant as of the modern day with the rapid increase in annual temperature and will continue to have an effect on our lives in the future if work is not done to combat it.    

Have you ever witnessed an illusion that left you awe-struck? Whether it would be from birthday party magicians to those weird recommended videos on YouTube (that we ALL have watched at some time), somewhere, at some point your brain has been fooled. Magicians have been able to deceive our perceptions with their mastery of sleight of hand, but what about any illusions that don’t use this technique? Thankfully, we don’t need a magician to know the “secrets” of light interactions, so we can try examining those.

Here’s an example of a pure illusion that you may have seen before and that I had been reintroduced to in my general chemistry course this past week. Take a look at the image of the colored circle. Focus on it by staring at the white dot in the middle for 30 seconds. After 30 seconds, look at the white space on the right and blink rapidly. Can you tell the difference? If you did it correctly (congrats, you’re not color blind!), you would have noticed how the colors in the 3 arcs: blue, red, and green, have changed into different colors: yellow, cyan, and purple-like respectively. How does this trick work though?  

To examine this, we need some background knowledge about light and its interactions with matter. Simply put, light is a form of energy that is dual-behavioral depending on whether the wave-like behavior of electromagnetic waves or the particle-like behavior of photons (quantum of light) is being observed. Let’s first examine light under the scope of wave behavior. 

Waves can be interpreted in many ways through defining characteristics of their oscillations; some of these being the wavelength (peak-to-peak or troph-to-troph distance), frequency (the rate at which waves pass through a single point), speed (a constant “c”= 3 x 108m/s), and amplitude (height/intensity of light). Generally, frequency and wavelength are inverse to one another, since increasing the frequency of a wave means the distance between wavelengths will shorten and vice versa. 

If we were trying to identify the properties of waves, we would do so by examining their wavelengths. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves can represent this visually for us. The range of these wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation varies from microscopic units of angstroms (1 x 10^-10m) which are found in highly energetic gamma rays to kilometers (1 x 10^2m), found in radio frequencies. Visible light represents a narrow region of this spectrum that can be seen by the human eye from 400-750 nm and contains the various wavelengths of this range corresponding to different colors of the rainbow (we’re getting somewhere). 

Since we just analyzed light interactions with wave behavior, it’s only fitting we complement it with the applications of the interaction of light with matter. There are four notable light interactions with matter: emission, absorption, reflection, and radiation. For the sake of relevance, we will only be discussing absorption. Absorption occurs when white light is transmitted through an object, while the wavelengths of its complementary color (as seen on the color wheel), are absorbed by and contribute energy to the solution (this is what’s important). You may be thinking, “Why would the complementary color of a solution be absorbed instead of the color being transmitted through?” To expand on that, that’s just the way it is. Since Isaac Newton discovered white light could be separated into colors, he was able to arrange this relationship into what is now a color wheel, revolutionizing what complementary colors would be. 

How we observe colors is determined by how our eyes process them. Physiologically, the photons in the visible range of electromagnetic waves are detected by the cone and rod cells in the retina and are then processed by the optic nerves in the back of the eye to be interpreted by the brain. 

There is still more to this topic, but the information we have now is sufficient enough to come to a conclusion about the illusion mentioned in the beginning. 

The illusion of the changed colors was able to fool our brains because normally our eyes subconsciously process visual light in absorption for us, presenting the result of the transmission and residue of the complimentary wavelengths through the corresponding color of the object. Once those receptors were overworked (staring for 30 seconds), a temporary image with complementary colors was able to be seen when continuously blinking. The disconnect from the overworked receptors allowed us to get a glimpse of the conversion for ourselves in a simple, but fun little optical illusion. 

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Attached here is another cool example of this illusion with Ryan Gosling as Ken from the Barbie Movie if you would like to try!