The Armies of the Roman Republic

In order to discover what made the Roman army so successful during times of war, we must first understand the types of men that made up the Roman army.  If we acquire a better understanding of the different units and soldiers that the Romans used on the battlefield, we can then paint a clearer picture of the organization and tactics of the Roman army and how those carried them to victory over their many foes.  In this section, we will go over the different types of skirmishers, infantry and cavalry that the Romans utilized in the time of the Roman Republic as well as the types of arms and armor they used.

 

Velites

Veles

Velites (or the singular veles) were the primary skirmisher unit of the armies of the Roman Republic. The Velites were made up of the youngest and most often poorest of the service-capable male population of the Roman Republic typically ranging in age from their late teens to their early twenties. At this point in time, members of the legion were required to purchase their own arms and armor and the Velites, unable to afford expensive equipment, acquired cheaper gear more suited for ranged combat.  The Velites wore little armor but did carry a small round shield for protection called a parma which was about three feet in length. What armor the Velites did wear consisted of just a small protective cap on their head called a galea and was covered with a piece of hide usually from a wolf and helped distinguish the Velites from other soldiers on the battlefield. The primary weapon of a Veles was a throwing spear or javelin called a verutum (veruta). The verutum was about 6 feet long in total and possessed a soft iron head of about two feet in length. This soft iron head was designed to bend after making contact with its target. This bending of the head made sure that the enemy would not be able to throw it back and use it for their own benefit.  The Velites were retired as a unit following the Marian Reforms in 107BC.

[Polybius 6.21-22]

 

Hastati

hastatusThe Hastati (Hastatus) were the first line of melee infantry used in Roman manipular formations. Members of the Hastati typically ranged in age from their early to mid twenties. The Hastati were also wealthier than the Velites and were therefore able to procure superior weapons and armor which were designed for close-quarters engagements. The Hastati defended themselves with a curved-rectangular shield called a scutum. The scutum was about four feet tall by two and a half feet wide and was manufactured by gluing two large pieces of wood together. The wood was then covered in layers of canvas and hide while the edges of the scutum were then lined with iron to help deflect incoming enemy sword blows. A large piece of iron called an umbo was then fitted to the front of the shield to help defend from missile attacks from enemy archers and slingers. In addition, The Hastati also wore a brass breastplate on their front call a pectorale and were also outfitted with a helmet adorned with feathers. The primary melee weapon for the Hastati was a short sword used for stabbing and thrusting called a gladius or “Spanish Sword”.  The gladius was a short sword fashioned from strong, lightweight steel said to have been adopted during interactions with Celtiberian tribes from Spain, hence its nickname.  Legionnaires would often train with heavier wooden versions of the gladius, a practice that would hopefully translate to quicker attacks on the battlefield.  The gladius also hung on the ride side of the user, requiring the soldier to draw the sword upward, rather than across the body as typical with other swords. Each Hastatus was also outfitted with two throwing spears called pila (pilum) which were thrown at the enemy formation to disrupt their lines prior to melee engagement.  In addition to its lethality, the soft iron head of the pilum would bend when it came in contact with an enemy shield making it near impossible to pull out.  Now incredibly difficult to carry and use, the shield would usually be discarded, leaving approaching soldiers defenseless and easier to dispatch. The Hastati were also phased out with the Marian Reforms in 107 BC.

[Polybius 6.23], [Livy 8.8], [Tacitus 14.31-37]

Principes

The Principes (Princeps) made up the second line of infantry in the armies of Republican Rome.  downloadThe men that made up the Principes were said to be “men in the full vigor of life” and tended to range in age from their mid to late twenties.  Polybius states that the Principes were initially spearmen armed with a long stabbing spear called a hasta, but were later required to carry gladii and two pila like their Hastati companions.  Defensively, the Principes were outfitted in a similar fashion the the Hastati, the only differences between the two units being battle experience, age and wealth. The Principes would be organized in line behind the Hastati in battle. If the Hastati found themselves having too much difficulty dispatching the enemy they would retreat and create gaps in the line to allow room for the reserve Principes. The Hastati and Principes would then fight side by side in a single line, the enemy now having the difficulty of facing not only fresher Roman troops, but more experienced ones as well. The Principes were dissolved in 107 BC following the Marian Reforms.

[Livy 8.8], [Polybius 6.23]

Triarii

The Triarii were the thrid and most experienced line used in the legions of Republican Rome. The Triarii were the wealthiest members of the Roman infantry and were also the oldest usually aged somewhere in their thirties. While most legions would have 1200+ Hastati and Principes, the number of Triarii in a legion was always held at a constant number of only 600.triarii While the Principes were required to abandon their hastae and procure smaller gladii for combat, the Triarii continued to use the hasta and would line up behind the Principes forming a third and final line of veteran spearmen. The Triarii were also outfitted with armor and a scutum similar to the other infantry, but if they were wealthy enough could afford to buy a coat of mail or loricae for additional protection.  Their helmets also displayed more plumage and feathers than the other infantry giving off the illusion of them being significantly taller than their enemies, inspiring fear.  If the battle went smoothly enough for the Hastati and Principes the Triarii would not have to take part in the battle. However, if the two former lines of infantry still could not overwhelm the enemy, they would fall back on to the Triarii, who would rise from their position of kneeling behind the line and engage the enemy with their long spears. Since having to actually use the Triarii on the battle field meant things were not going very well for the Romans this prompted the creation of the Roman expression of: “matters have come down to the Triarii“.  Which essentially meaning that things are coming down to the wire. The Triarii were also phased out with the introduction of the Marian Reforms.

[Livy 8.8], [Polybius 6.19-20, 23]

Roman Cavalry

The Roman cavalry, sometimes referred to as Equites were the cavalry contingent of the Roman army and were made up of the republic’s wealthiest citizens. These cavalrymen also had the added benefit of only being required to serve ten years in the military rather than the typical twenty required of the infantry.equites romanus 1 Polybius doesn’t provide many specifics as to how these men were equipped, but merely stated that they were outfitted similarly to the Greeks, who were outfitted with a coat of lorica mail and carried a sturdy lance with a butt spike for stabbing. Equites also used a small round shield similar to the parma of the Velites for defense. Equites were typically lined up alongside the Roman infantry lines and guarded the formation’s vulnerable flanks. If the enemy possessed cavalry, the Equites would engage and attempt to force them from the field and prevent them from attacking the exposed sides of the Roman infantry. If the Equites successfully dispatched the enemy cavalry , they would then charge into the enemy flanks to assist the infantry. Equites typically numbered only about 200 or 300 per legion and were used purely as compliments to the main force and backbone of the Roman army, the infantry, a point further emphasized by the limited amount of information divulged by ancient writers about Roman cavalry compared to the ground troops.

[Polybius 6.25]

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