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Ever since the space age came about, humans have launched many rockets and satellites into space. Going to space is one thing, but what about getting them to come down? Unfortunately, this is a problem that hasn’t really been solved yet, as many of these machines are just left up in the atmosphere, orbiting endlessly. Called space debris (or space junk), this term refers to anything that has died in space, or just left up there after its mission ended. And when one piece of debris collides with another, it creates even more debris. According to space.com, “over 21,000 pieces of space trash larger than 4 inches (10 centimeters) and half a million bits of junk between 1 cm and 10 cm are estimated to circle the planet.” Debris in low orbit can reenter the atmosphere and burn up, preventing any harmful pieces of metal from hitting anything on Earth. However, debris that is higher than 36,000 kilometers stay in orbit, circling for hundreds or thousands of years.

Fortunately, space junk doesn’t currently pose a threat to exploration efforts. What it does endanger, though, is other satellites. In 2009, satellite Iridium 33 collided with Cosmos 2251, a Russian satellite. According to U.S. Navy Lieutenant Charlie Drey, the collision caused the U.S. Defense Department’s Space Surveillance Network to track “more than 500 pieces of debris which pose an additional risk to satellites.”

Space debris is a problem that is rising; as more and more debris form in space, near-Earth atmosphere will become less and less safe for satellites. Currently, mission controllers are forced to take action and physically maneuver satellites out of the way, but this type of solution isn’t exactly the most reliable. Aside from human error, these operations take time and fuel, which are precious resources that can’t always be afforded. As such, researchers are now investigating new ways of handling this problem. Methods include improving how teams can better assess what is in orbit, which raises the efficiency moving in a crowded space, compiling a data set on where everything is, or developing ways to measure space debris properties, such as shape and size, allowing for better foresight. This is a critical part of space science because alternatively, if enough debris is generated, then the space near us can become unusable.  According to Carolin Frueh, a researcher at Purdue University, “If we go on like this, we will reach a point of no return.” Fortunately, we are in the early stages, and there is plenty of time before space truly becomes trashed beyond the point of no return.

In this modern age, we are all used to using WiFi to browse the internet, online shop, or post a new picture to social media. It’s become so integrated into our lives it’s like second nature; however, there are places close by that live a completely different life. Welcome to Green Bank, West Virginia, home of the world’s largest radio telescope. Astronomers use this telescope to look at deep parts in the sky, advancing our cosmic knowledge and hopefully find signs of extraterrestrial life. Green Bank lies smack dab in the middle of the National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), which was established by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC) to minimize interference received by the telescopes. Basically, people living in this area must agree not to use WiFi. Say goodbye to bluetooth, microwave ovens, remote control toys, etc. How do people do it? Well, it’s not as bad as it sounds. For one, browsing the internet is allowed, but one must use an ethernet cable to do so. Residents can use landlines to call each other.

I actually got the chance to go to the Green Bank Observatory, and it was every bit as interesting as I thought it would be. Obviously, my phone didn’t work, but there was a computer lab in the science center… surrounded by a Faraday cage. A Faraday cage is an enclosed space that blocks electromagnetic signals, which is why it was safe to browse the internet within this space. The point of my trip wasn’t just to go on the computer inside a Faraday cage, it was actually to use a telescope! I got the chance to use the forty-meter educational telescope, and learned how to use and interpret that data. The telescope could only change its declination, which is the vertical direction. The other direction, called right ascension, would depend on the time of day. There was a list of objects in the night sky, and using the telescope, we were able to track these celestial objects in the night sky. Galaxies, nebulas, star clusters, etc. were all able to be observed with the telescope. I also got a change to go and see the actual Green Bank Telescope up close, but didn’t get a change to use it. Going to Green Bank was a really special experience, and even though I didn’t get to use my phone, I would definitely go again!

Recently, NASA announced some new astronauts that were being added to their ranks. The 11 new astronauts brought the number in NASA’s corp to 48. The ultimate mission of these new recruits was to go to Mars, but they may also be assigned to the International Space Station and the Moon. According to NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine, “2020 will mark the return of launching American astronauts on American rockets from American soil, and will be an important year of progress for our Artemis program and missions to the Moon and beyond.” This announcement reminded me of when I was little, when my goal, like many other kids, was to be an astronaut. But how exactly does one become an astronaut, exactly?

To preface, being an astronaut takes a lot of willpower and a lot of commitment. Lots of these candidates leave behind luxurious careers for a space to go to space. Yet, in 2017, more than 18,000 hopefuls applied to become a member of NASA’s 2017 graduating class. Being an astronaut is no easy feat. It takes both physical and mental prowess. At the base level, NASA requires future astronauts to have a bachelor’s degree in engineering, biology or physical science, computer science, or mathematics. Following the degree, they need three years of professional experience or 1,000 hours of pilot-in-command time in a jet aircraft. However, they will take an advanced degree as substitution for experience. Like I mentioned, astronauts need to be in top physical shape, which means they need to pass a grueling physical examination. Astronauts need to pass these tests because they need to prove that they have what it takes to go to space.

Once an astronaut has been selected, what exactly do they do? It’s a job most people can only dream of, but do those dreamers know what the job truly consists of? The astronauts on the Space Shuttle perform experiments, release and capture other satellites, and even assemble the ISS. However, the Space Shuttle isn’t the permanent research facility that the International Space Station is. Crew members aboard the ISS working on science experiments in space, monitor experiments controlled from the ground, and take part in medical experiments that determine how well their body is adjusting to microgravity. Importantly, the ISS needs maintenance. Astronauts aboard this satellite are constantly fixing systems, clearing filters, and updating computer equipment. Being an astronaut means representing the best of the best of human population. It’s an extremely challenging job, but a rewarding one. I’ll probably never be an astronaut, but I will always respect those in the profession.

When we think about cannibalism, we think of humans eating other people, which is quite a disturbing visual to have in the brain. However, when we take the concept of “cannibalism” to the galactic scale, the result is much less disturbing and honestly quite hauntingly beautiful. But first, what exactly is galactic cannibalism? This interesting cosmic phenomenon is when two galaxies collide and one galaxy absorbs the other. As we all know, galaxies have gravity. When these galaxies collide with one another, the gravitational pull of both galaxies tug at each other. (Picture two galaxies with gigantic arms pulling each other in for a lovely hug).

Let’s take a look at our very own galaxy, the Milky Way. It’s a spiral galaxy, comprised of a disk and halo. It has more than 200 billion stars, and is approximately 100,000 light years in diameter. Many stars in the disk are young (relatively speaking, of course) and were probably formed within the Milky Way. On the other hand, stars in the halo are old. That age gap doesn’t exactly line up, so what happened? According to astronomers, these ancient stars were most like “eaten” by the Milky Way, through the process of galactic cannibalism. Due to its large gravitational force, the Milky Way was able to overpower a smaller, weaker galaxy and absorb the stars.

Out galaxy isn’t exactly done with galactic cannibalism, though. At this very moment, we are hurtling through space towards our neighbor, the Andromeda galaxy. Andromeda is huge, so it’s likely that we will be the ones to get sucked into Andromeda’s galactic pull and combine together to form a galactic behemoth.

A question to ask might be, “How do we know we are moving towards Andromeda?” The answer lies with something called redshift, which means that light from an object is increasing in wavelength, and thus moving away from us. In 1910, Edwin Hubble was atop Mt. Wilson studying the motion of astronomical objects, when he determined that most objects outside our galaxy were redshifted. This helped later astrophysicists understand our place in the sky; Edwin helped prove that the universe was expanding. However, it’s important to keep in mind that objects in space move very slowly. Galactic cannibalism between the Milky Way and Andromeda won’t happen for another 4.5 billion years, and if humanity survives long enough to witness the event, the stars in the galaxies are so far apart there will be very little interaction. Even so, it’s an interesting phenomenon to know about and who knows, maybe in 4.5 billion years empirical evidence will prove me wrong.

Pretty much everything in the universe is in the shape of a sphere. Why? Simply, because gravity pulls everything inward. Gravity pulls from all sides, and eventually that force will even out and cause the resulting object to be a ball. However, there may technically be another shape that wouldn’t actually break the laws of physics, and that shape is a… donut. Yes, a donut (or a toroid) shaped planet could actually exist! However, there would be some physics that needs to be overcome in order to reach that point. Like I previously mentioned, planets are spherical because gravity pulls it inward. To get the hole at the center of a donut shaped planet, an equal outward force must be applied. One such force is centrifugal force, such as the force experienced on a merry-go-round, but that means the planet would have to be spinning extremely fast. This high speed would compensate for the outward force.

This type of planet is hypothetical, of course, but there are scientists that are studying it. Simon Lock, a graduate student from Harvard University, and Sarah Stewart, professor at UC Davis, have named this intergalactic donut a “synestia“.  They also say that Earth was once a synestia. Currently, the theory for planetary formation starts with a protoplanetary disk left over from star formation, and the material congregates and eventually forms larger bodies. When two large bodies collide, they cool and become spherical. However, the pair of researchers asked the question, “What if the resulting body spun extremely quickly?” Take the generic example of two figure skaters. Figure skaters are often used in physics classes because they demonstrate the concept of angular momentum very well. When a figure skater is spinning rapidly with her hands close to her, she can extend her arms to slow down. When a pair of figure skaters are spinning, they can join together and add their angular momentums. Replace the figure skaters with planets, and this is the core of what Lock and Stewart wanted to study. According to Stewart, “We looked at the statistics of giant impacts, and we found that they can form a completely new structure.”

Furthermore, this paved the way for a new explanation on how the Moon originated. When Earth was (hypothetically) a synestia, the Moon was simultaneously forming inside of it. According to Stewart, “The moon is chemically almost the same as the Earth, but with some differences. This is the first model that can match the pattern of the moon’s composition.” The problem with studying synestias is that they don’t last very long. They’re thought to last only hundreds of years, which is very short in astronomical terms. For that reason, it’s hard to detect them in the observable universe. However, scientists are hopeful, and maybe one day we can alter the current theory of planetary formation to add synestias!

When we explore the world of science fiction, we are often taken to Mars, the Moon, and other planetary bodies. Stories such as War of the Worlds and The First Men in the Moon take us on a journey not limited by the surface of the Earth. However, in the past they were just stories, but in the future, they could be reality. Of course, we’re probably not going to be invaded by Martians or little green men any time soon, but there is a chance for us colonizing these places. When we think of intergalactic bases and civilizations, we think of super high-tech buildings and machines with flying cars and such, but reality might be a bit more… biological. In a field known as synthetic biology, where life itself is being converted into technology, NASA scientists are imaging a way for fungi to be our future home on the Moon. In the myco-architecture project, NASA biologists will engineer fungi to grow into livable habitats on these interstellar rocky surfaces. Known as mycelium, these multicellular fungi can grow into macro-sized structures, which we know as mushrooms. Mycelium produces incredibly small molecules and does it with such precision it’s invisible to the human eye. As the mycelium grows, scientists intervene right before it starts the mushroom stage and can puppeteer the fungi to build specific things. And some of these things are incredibly useful to us today. The fast growing fibers produce many of the luxuries that we use, from leather to scaffolding for growing organs.

However, it’s important to remember that mycelium, like all plants and fungi, are living organisms. Enter cyanobacteria, which converts water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and food. When put together, a space habitat is constructed! The outer layer is made from water ice, tapped from resources on the planet/moon. This serves as protection from radiation. The second layer is where the cyanobacteria comes in, taking that water and producing oxygen for both the astronauts and the mycelia. The mycelia’s final layer is the one that grows into a home, fit with structural integrity.

The harsh and formidable environments on the Moon and Mars means that we have to think outside of our comfort zone if we want to live there. Unlike the floating cities and flying cars seen in science fiction, we might have to look a little bit more organically if we want to survive in such harsh locations.

One of the biggest mysteries that plague our minds is the universe. The universe is so vast and grand, and so far out of our reach. We must be content with staying on our little blue rock, floating through the fabric of space, desperately trying to peer out into the darkness and get a grasp of the cosmos. However, in the past few decades, massive strides in the field of astronomy have been taken and we now know more than we ever did before. One of the things that we understand now that wasn’t understood centuries ago was how the universe came to be. Through a theory known as the Big Bang (no, not the show), scientists have come up with a leading explanation for the birth of the universe. Now, there currently aren’t any instruments that let astrophysicists physically see back to the universe’s birth, but through a model called the Cosmic Microwave Background, which is thought to be leftover radiation from the Big Bang.

The radiation cannot be seen by the naked eye, but it is everywhere. Astronomers use specific tools to see the radiation, and as a result can “see” the expansion of the universe. The Big Bang theory is widely accepted, but there are astronomers who believe in other explanations.

According to NASA, if a snapshot were captured one second after the Big Bang, there would be a 10-billion degree sea of atomic particles, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons. The universe would start to cool, combining these atomic particles and starting the slow progress to get to where we are today. The afterglow of the Big Bang, the photons that existed then, are the very same photons that we observe today in the Cosmic Microwave Background. In 2013, the European Space Agency’s Planck satellite mapped the sky, revealing the universe to be about 13.82 billion years old, which was older than previously thought.

The Big Bang Theory was proposed by Georges LeMaitre in 1927, and was soon expanded upon by Edwin Hubble. Hubble discovered that other galaxies were moving away from us at high speeds. Hubble wasn’t aware of LeMaitre’s work at the time, but their two theories collided and supported each other. Hubble’s work with astronomy is astounding, and will forever shape the way we view the cosmos. It is through scientists like LeMaitre and Hubble that we begin to unravel the mysteries of the cosmos, and as the future draws closer, we will slowly start inching our way to understanding our role in the vast universe.

When we think of space, and the various organizations that associate with space, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA, is probably one that immediately jumps to mind. NASA’s vision, as stated on their website, is “To discover and expand knowledge for the benefit of humanity.” People like me eagerly follow NASA and their missions, for there is the idea that every day, we are closer to revealing the secrets of the universe. In a recent update, NASA has revealed the next location in our Solar System that is to be explored: Titan, Saturn’s largest moon. Furthermore, it’s the only moon in the Solar System that has clouds and a planet-like atmosphere. Because Titan has an orange haze surrounding it, people don’t usually associate the moon with potential signs of life, as orange isn’t a color commonly associated with organic life forms, but according to an article by Astrobiology Magazine, there might be potential for biomolecules to form. See, Titan is extraordinary in that it has lakes, rivers, and seas. These bodies of water contain liquid hydrocarbons such as methane and ethane. Furthermore, underneath the crust, an ocean made up of water lies unexplored. It could be a place for life to potentially exist.

In 2019, NASA announced a new mission, named Dragonfly, that will fly to Saturn’s exciting moon and collect samples. According to their website, Dragonfly will launch in 2026 and arrive in 2034, traversing across the moon looking for chemicals that will help scientists unlock the secrets of this moon. Dragonfly exists off the backbone of the Cassini mission, which explored Saturn and finally crashed into the planet’s atmosphere on September 15, 2017. Using 13 years of data, Dragonfly can choose a calm spot on Titan to land, and look for scientifically interesting targets. The thing is, life as we think of it cannot exist on the planet’s surface, because it is so far from the Sun. The moon shivers at an astounding -290 degrees Fahrenheit, and also has a surface pressure 50 percent higher than that on Earth. Be as that may, Titan’s organic molecules still excite scientists. The atmosphere on the moon is dominated by nitrogen, methane, and oxygen, all important compounds in the building blocks of life.

2034 seems so far away, but it’s only 14 years. Those following the exciting new research and data will receive answers in the blink of an eye. Here’s to hoping that the next decade will be the harbinger of the next chapter in space exploration!

 

An idea that has been consistent throughout these blogs was if we were alone in the universe. As I’ve reiterated throughout the blogs, if the universe is truly infinite (or at the very least, extremely big), statistically there should have been some technologically advanced civilizations that have visited or contacted Earth. Enter the Fermi Paradox, named after Enrico Fermi, an Italian physicist.

Fermi thought that there was proof we were alone in the universe, simply because we haven’t heard anything. According to sources like the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), Fermi made a simple remark over lunch one day that would go down in history. Most physicists at the time were reasonably assuming that alien civilizations exist. I mean, why wouldn’t they? The universe is vast, and religious ties to science had been a thing of the past. And if there were (statistically) many alien civilizations, any one of them could have been advanced enough to create technology that could colonize a galaxy. Given a timeline of ten million years, every star system in the Milky Way could’ve been colonized. And the universe has existed for a while, which gives ample time for at least one race to become the conquerors, right? So Fermi asked the question that would go down in history: “Where is everybody?”

Enrico Fermi asked the initial question, but it fell onto the shoulders of other scientists to find a plausible explanation. Scientist Michael Hart wrote an article titled “An Explanation for the Absence of Extraterrestrials on Earth” in which he explores the Fermi Paradox, and how there are no other advanced civilizations in our galaxy. Of course, aliens could have visited earth, just before our written history.

Hart outlines four arguments regarding this paradox. The first states that aliens never came because of some physical complication that severely limits space travel. This one could be plausible, but it’s also somewhat depressing because that means humans would also never be able to realistically travel in space. Another line of thinking argues that maybe aliens never chose to come to earth. This one is easier to swallow because then space travel isn’t limited by science, but rather by choice. Maybe the rise alien civilizations relatively parallel our own rise. This way, it’s still yet too early for galactic colonization. The final reason I already mentioned above: aliens have visited earth in the past but we did not see them.

Whatever the reason for this lack of contact, it mostly lies within our own Milky Way galaxy. There are millions of galaxies in the universe, and give the amount of star systems each galaxy contains, at least one of them has to have birthed intelligent alien civilizations, right? Even if we never meet them, the statistical chance that we truly are the only intelligent beings in the entire universe (not just the Milky Way) is too daunting a thought to bear.

There are times when I tell people that my planned major is astronomy, and they do a double-take and hesitantly ask me, “astronomy? Isn’t that like studying the zodiac signs?” No, it is not. That’s astrology. Although astrologers and astronomers both look up to the skies, they two fields are vastly different in that one is considered a science and the other not. Astronomy is the study of the universe and their physical nature, while astrology is the study of the motion of stars and planets and how they influence events here on Earth. Astronomy has been consistently a cornerstone of science for a while, while astrology has seen its ups and downs. Currently, astrology is rising once again.

But why exactly is astrology gaining popularity? According to Julie Beck, writer for The Atlantic, astrology is a meme and is rising just as memes do. People today can joke about their Zodiac sign in countless contexts and post coincidental events, which just happened to aline with the stars. However, memes haven’t really been around as long as astrology, so what caused it to be popular in the past? In 1972, psychologist Graham Tyson found in a study that people turned to astrologers in times of stress, relying on the stars as a coping mechanism. This directly correlates to a survey done by the American Psychological Association, which discovered that millennials are the most stressed generation. This can explain why astrology has been so prevalent these past couple of years. Maybe it’s not just the outward interest astrology signs presents as memes, but rather the underlying psychological reasoning behind a society bending under the weight of constant stress.

My personal astrology zodiac sign is Libra, which is for people born between September 23 – October 22. The symbol for libra is a balance, which gives the defining traits of those who are a libra. According to the website, we are “peaceful, fair, and hate being alone.” I mean, I guess that’s true enough. However, these are pretty generic, positive traits for people, and I’d be surprised if most people weren’t described by these traits.

Astrology is seeing an acceptance in our society after being on the wayside, and people are depending on it more and more. If people decide to follow the stars, who am I to intervene? At the bare minimum astrology is a fun way to guide us on our paths amidst our busy lives.