PSYCH 424 blog

Police interrogations can be mentally draining on anyone having to sit through one. There can be mental manipulation that goes on and that can possibly lead to false confessions.  There are people out there that have confessed to crimes they did not commit because of the interrogations they were put through. Interrogations can be a tricky and controversial thing to a case if it is not done the right way.

Some things that can be caused by harsh interrogations stated in this article for example, “Research depicts that any kind of harsh interrogation, physical or mental, can have adverse consequences like obtaining unreliable information. Further, it has been noted that the coarse way of interrogation is absolutely ineffective as it can lead to refusal of cooperation by the suspect. When a harsh approach is adopted in order to acquire information, the memory of the person who is being interrogated can deteriorate; thus, decreasing the accuracy of the information provided by them” (Kashyap, 2021).  Which shows being so harsh in interrogations can affect a case in a negative way. Being too harsh and trying to force a confession out of someone who may or may not have committed a crime has negative effects.

Then on top of harsh interrogations what might come out of those is false confessions. For example this article states, “Kassin explained that false confessions are not rare: More than a quarter of the 365 people exonerated in recent decades by the nonprofit Innocence Project had confessed to their alleged crime. Drawing on more than 30 years of research, Kassin told the legal team how standard interrogation techniques combine psychological pressures and escape hatches that can easily cause an innocent person to confess. He explained how young people are particularly vulnerable to confessing, especially when stressed, tired, or traumatized, as Burton was” (Starr, 2019). Which shows that these harsh confessions can have a major psychological toll on someone where they get convinced they did a crime they did not commit. These people got torn down so much mentally in a interrogation that they confessed to something they did not do.

In conclusion, harsh interrogations can lead to false confessions. Being psychologically put to the test in these interrogations can make just about anyone confess to a crime they did not commit.  There are many reasons someone may confess to something they did not even do. One is they are mentally manipulated enough to believe they might have done something. Another reason is that someone may confess to something that is a lesser charge then what they actually did. Then, another reason is maybe they are protecting someone they do not want going to jail. There are so many reasons why so false confessions are so common. There are newer ways of interrogation that are not as harsh anymore. A lot of times police will rely heavily on evidence that is completely solid to be able to charge someone.

References

Kashyap, M. (2021, November 28). The Psychology Behind Interrogation: Blog. Monk Prayogshala. Retrieved February 28, 2023, from https://www.monkprayogshala.in/blog/2021/11/8/the-psychology-behind-interrogation#:~:text=Research%20depicts%20that%20any%20kind,of%20cooperation%20by%20the%20suspect.

Starr, D. (2019). This psychologist explains why people confess to crimes they didn’t commit. Science. Retrieved February 28, 2023, from https://www.science.org/content/article/psychologist-explains-why-people-confess-crimes-they-didn-t-commit

The legal system is a cornerstone of society, providing a framework for resolving disputes and holding individuals accountable for their actions. Though in recent years, the effectiveness and fairness of the legal system have been called into question, with concerns regarding racial disparities, wrongful convictions, and harsh sentencing practices. Using social psychology and the knowledge of human behavior and attitudes, these issues can be understood and addressed. I am going to be exploring some of the key areas where applied social psychology could make a difference in the legal system.

First and foremost, racial bias is one of the most pressing issues in the legal system. With studies that have shown people of color are disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system, displaying higher rates of arrest, conviction, and harsher sentences when compared to their white counterparts (Weitzer, 1996). This bias can stem from implicit biases held by law enforcement officials and judges, as well as systemic issues like poverty and educational disparities. To address this issue, social psychology can be used to raise awareness about implicit bias, promote diversity and inclusivity in the legal system, and advocate for policies that address systemic issues.

Another important area of focus for social psychologists is wrongful convictions. Research has shown that eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, and that individuals can be coerced into confessing crimes they did not commit (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). Working with law enforcement professionals can help them to develop better investigative techniques that reduce the risk of wrongful convictions, such as using sequential lineups instead of simultaneous lineups to improve the accuracy of or eyewitness identification.

Harsh sentencing practices are another issue that social psychologists can address. Studies have indicated that longer prison sentences do not necessarily deter crime and could even contribute to higher rates of recidivism (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). Collaboration between social psychologists and policymakers can help to develop alternative sentencing practices that focus on rehabilitation.

Finally, improving the overall effectiveness of the legal system can be done through promoting restorative justice practices. Restorative justice focuses on repairing harm caused by crime, rather than punishing the offender. This approach can help reduce recidivism rates and promote a sense of healing for both victims and offenders (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). The legal system faces many challenges that require nuanced and evidence-based approaches. All of which applied social psychology has a role to play in.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Sage.

Weitzer, R. (1996). Racial discrimination in the criminal justice system: Findings and problems in the literature. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24(4), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2352(96)00015-3

It is interesting to think about the psychology behind criminals and try to understand why they do what they do. I think that the textbook explains very well different theories and reasons why a criminal may commit a crime. The Social Learning Theory is one theory that helps psychologists and individuals understand why a criminal does what they do. I feel like a lot of people have certain stereotypes when it comes to criminals such as; they must have had a major trauma in their childhood or something must’ve happened to them as a kid. While statistics show that this is the case majority of the time, outside social environments can be used as another way to give reason to crimes.

The textbook explains social learning theory as, “criminal activity represents learned behaviors that develop through a person’s interactions and experiences with the social environment” (Gruman and Schneider, 2016). This means that the crimes criminals commit may be caused by interactions criminals have with people or things in society. There are so many things and people in society that can easily influence other people to do things. This could be positive and negative things, but the social learning theory specifically points out negative crimes that criminals may be influenced to commit.  

Something that I have studied and looked at in the past was the effect violent video games have on aggression in people. There have been many studies performed to see how violence in media, specifically video games, can cause people to become more aggressive and display aggressive behaviors. I think that this goes hand and hand with the social learning theory. Outside environmental factors, such as violence in the media, can cause certain behaviors, such as aggression. I think it is important to think of other factors that would affect people’s behaviors and think of other reasons as to why criminals do what they do.

As much as it is important for psychologists and other people working in the judicial system to know about this theory, I think it should be known by criminals as well. I think that if criminals were aware of this theory and how certain factors and things may influence them, then they can stray clear from those factors. Being aware of these things may lead to a lower crime rate and help criminals not commit crimes. 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Despite the many technological advances in the different areas of our economy; one fact remains clear, the need for individuals to carry out specific work is ever-present, and so is the need for teams to complete some of these tasks.  With this brings a set of problems that are only being aggravated by the lack of workers. To complicated things even more, the amount of turnover or lack of workforce participation is dwindling (Smith & Green, 2020). So how do we retain the necessary talent within the workforce? An important element in answering these questions is understanding the correlation between leadership and worker productivity. Just as important is understanding how cohesion between teams’ members brings success or failure, and how that that correlate to worker productivity (Gruman et al., 2016).

According to (Gruman & et. al., 2016, p. 3) leadership is defined as, “particular individuals exert influence on the goal achievement of others in an organizational context, in this sense, leadership is inherently social and is a special case of interpersonal influence in which individuals or groups follow the wishes of the leader” The correlation between leadership and productivity has been the subject of many studies, indicating that leadership is fundamental to any organization (Gruman et al., 2016). This should be an interest to all who seek to work for any organization, either as an employee or as a supervisor. More importantly, the need to communicate, understand the different factors that influence our behaviors, actions, and decision is important to those that are charged with leading others.

It is not necessary to have a leadership/supervisor role to know that there are benefits of what causes an employee to behave at work the way they do; or the attribution process to determine what drives them (Gruman et al., 2016). After all, from a supervisory point of view, we must know and understand what motivates and drives our workforce, to either perform or not perform, and if interventions are needed (Gruman et al., 2016). Often, when interventions are needed, it is because the situation has reached a point in which team cohesion has deteriorated. By virtue of responsibility, the leader is responsible for ensuring that this doesn’t occur and if it does occur that they provide the necessary intervention.

So why is cohesion so critical to individuals, and teams? According to, Gruman & et. al. (2016), there are two types of cohesion, task cohesion and social cohesion, that although interrelated, they are distinct. After all, cohesion is not linear but contain different interrelated factors. Within each of these distinct types of cohesion lies the ability determine the possible lack of performance. Being able to determine what factors within the cohesion concept affects a team can help implement the correct intervention strategy at the individual level, or team level. After all, no one person or persons are alike. So how does a leader play a role in cohesion?

There are different social factors that contribute to individual and team cohesion and ultimately to their performance. One of those elements is the type of leadership style. Gruman & et. al.(2016), point to two types of leadership, one being autocratic leadership, or the person who makes all the decision and does not delegate responsibility or authority. Naturally, this type of leadership style does not allow for the empowerment their subordinates or those who are perform the tasks. Another highlight to this type of leadership style is that studies have shown it is associated to lower level of task cohesion. Conversely, democratic leadership styles are related with higher levels of task cohesion. One of those reason is that a democratic leader allows for the input of others and allows for input to decision and policies (Gruman et al., 2016). Considering the different type of leadership, it is safe to postulate that task cohesion is strongly related to better performance.

Leadership often plays an important role in employees staying or leaving their current employers. After all, no one shoe fits all, consider that we are social individuals, and we are all different. Having an autocratic leader may pose a problem who is independent and self-sufficient; while this might be suitable for someone who prefers the least amount of responsibility. Conversely a democratic leader may not be a good fit for someone who requires more guidance. Does this imply employees should leave an organization if this occurs? I believe this is where leadership plays a huge role in understanding the internal and external factors of to understanding how retain talent.

Another important element is that we all seek to have a work environment that is free from psychological stressor for both those who lead and those led (Robertson & et. al., 2021). An element that I think is just as critical is team cognition or how those within a team share responsibility and how this leads to better team performance (Robertson & et. al., 202). After all, everyone would like to work for an organization that they enjoy working for or at the very least, don’t dread coming in to work. The correlation between team performance and stressors should be understood for those who are charged with the responsibility of leading as well as those who are part of a team or work within an organization. As no organization should have such a culture where things could become toxic, and work becomes dreadful and unbearable. If anything, from a financial perspective, the cost of retraining and  rehiring someone can be of considerable cost.

Vassie C, Smith S, Leedham-Green K Factors impacting on retention, success, and equitable participation in clinical academic careers: a scoping review and meta-thematic synthesis.

BMJ Open 2020;10:e033480. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-033480

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Wallis, A., Robertson, J., Bloore, R. A., & Jose, P. E. (2021). Differences and similarities between leaders and nonleaders on psychological distress, well-being, and challenges at work. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 73(4), 325-348. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/cpb0000214

van Oortmerssen, L. A.,  Caniëls, M. C. J.,  Stynen, D., &  van Ritbergen, A. (2022).  Boosting team flow through collective efficacy beliefs: A multilevel study in real-life organizational teams. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,  52,  1030– 1044. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1111/jasp.12910

The relationship between confidence and performance is one that is important to both individuals and teams. Confidence is “a feeling or consciousness of one’s powers or of reliance on one’s circumstances” (Merriam-Webster, 2023). In sports, confidence is important because it shows that you know what you are doing and that you can do it well. Confidence is a psychological component that can affect someones performance and lead to them performing better or worse. For example, an athlete who is confident in their skills may be more likely to take on challenges and try new things as opposed to someone who does not have confidence in their performance.

Individual confidence is important in a team, because each player needs to alone be confident in their abilities to bring their strengths to the group. The book emphasizes self-efficacy, which is “the belief that one can act to successfully produce a given outcome under a given set of circumstances” (Gruman, 2016). This explains that an individual must have confidence in themselves to complete goals and tasks. In a team, we cannot have some people who function with confidence and other who function without it.

Also, overall team confidence is necessary for a team to succeed. If one person has confidence in their own performance, but does not trust their team, then they cannot perform to their highest potential. The textbook also explains that collective efficacy is “a group’s shared belief in its ability to organize and execute the courses of action required to obtain a certain outcome” (Gruman, 2016). The whole team must have confidence in the teams ability, their coaches, the other players around them, and themselves. Studies in the textbook showed that teams with higher collective efficacy were more likely to perform better.

In addition, individual confidence can have an effect on the team’s confidence and performance. Leaders are important because they are the individuals that you look to for guidance and support. If you have a team leader who is confident in themselves and what they are saying, you ae likely going to be more likely to follow them. On the other hand, if you have a lead who is not confident in their abilities and what they are saying, then you would not want to follow their lead.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

Merriam-Webster. (2023). Confidence definition & meaning. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved February 23, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/confidence

I wonder how many of us remember when we were little and the kinds of games we played to keep us entertained.  Some of this was forced in school and some we really did just for the fun of it.  These games could have included Red Rover, Tug of War, tag and maybe even Capture the Flag.  I can remember how we picked most of the teams as the two perceived best people were usually picked as team captains and each would pick one person at a time.  For me they would pick their friends first and then the leftovers.  As I continued to grow up the same thing happened whether it was through watching pick-up games of basketball or touch football and even through my participation in a pick-up game of volleyball.  Is this how high school and professional sports teams are formed?  Do organizations work this way?  The answer is of course a resounding no as this would never work.

Bruce Tuckman came up with a better explanation on to how sports teams and organizational teams are formed.  He calls it the group or team stages of development.  There are four stages which include forming, storming, norming and performing; also included is a fifth stage called adjourning (Stein, 2023).  These stages are based on observable behaviors, feelings and thoughts, team needs and leadership required.  As we learn more about this model we should be able to point out some things that we have either seen or done while part of our own teams or organizations.  Are these necessary, reasonable and do they actually happen?  In using my own experiences and in my opinion the answer is yes as these help make the best teams whether it is organizational or in sports.

The forming stage consist of teams members not only anticipating where they will fit in on the team but also being excited about being on the team.  If you are joining the team for the first time or new to an organization you are sure to have questions.  Even seasoned veterans may have some questions going into a new sports season.  During this stage the coach and or leader is going to put out the mission and goals.  This makes since if we are just coming together.  During the storming process feelings change as the excitement wears off especially if the team is not performing well (Stein, 2023).  This leads to infighting and perhaps angry feelings.  Can the team adapt and overcome?  In terms of behavior frustration can set in which may lead to the lashing out against others.  Finger pointing can take place and everything is questioned.  The leader’s lofty team goals may have to be made into smart goals which are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time bound.  Leaders need to be able to be good in conflict resolution.  In the norming process the team starts coming together, meaning relationships are normalized.  The team comes together to make decisions, and generally gets back on task.  Members trust in the team and have a feeling that they are a key member of the team.  Shared leadership between members and leaders are key in this area (West Chester, 2022).  Performing addresses members knowing each other’s strengths and weaknesses.  Empathy is relevant and teams become flexible.  Leaders at this stage are supportive and ensure collaboration amongst team members.  Adjourning involves team members being glad that the season is over and finds them tired.

No real team or organization is formed how we were accustomed to in elementary school.  There is a more formal way to do it, such as using Tuckman’s group or team stages of development.  The stages such as forming, storming, norming and performing are all necessary to form a good team and to keep an organization going.  Adjourning does not necessarily equate to a formal organization as the work never ends, however it does for sports teams as they only have seasons.  In some form or fashion each stage happens.  I don’t necessarily think that each company or team uses these in this form or even knows about these.  Tuckman’s model is a good thing to have in your toolbox so to speak.

References

Stein, J.  (2023).  “Using the Stages of Team Development”.  MIT.  Retrieved February 22, 2023 from:  https://hr.mit.edu/learning-topics/teams/articles/stages-development

West Chester University. (2022).  “Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development”.  Retrieved February 22, 2023 from:  https://www.wcupa.edu/coral/tuckmanStagesGroupDelvelopment.aspx#:~:text=These%20stages%20are%20commonly%20known,more%20collaborative%20or%20shared%20leadership

The need for power is a concept in social psychology that refers to an individual’s desire to control, influence, or have an impact on others (1975; McClelland & Burnham, 1976) This need for power can manifest in various ways, such as seeking leadership roles, dominating conversations, or engaging in competitive activities.

There are two types of power: personal power and social power. Personal power is the desire to control others for personal gain, while social power is the desire to control others for the greater good or to benefit the group.

Research has shown that individuals with a high need for power tend to be more assertive, confident, and competitive. They are also more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior and have a greater tolerance for ambiguity.

However, the need for power can also lead to negative outcomes, such as aggression, unethical behavior, and conflicts with others. It can also contribute to the abuse of power, such as in cases of workplace harassment or political corruption.

Overall, the need for power is an important concept in social psychology that helps to explain why some individuals are driven to control or influence others, and how this need can impact their behavior and interactions with others.

McClelland DC, Burnham DH. Power is the great motivator. 1976. Harv Bus Rev. 2003

As I am growing in my career I am able to recognize the leadership styles that have been integral to my grown at different stages. I recognize that I am constantly growing and changing as such I appreciate leadership styles that are flexible and dynamic. In contrast, my experience with leadership styles that lack flexibility have been generally negative. I have found that rigidity does not leave a lot of room for growth. In my own style of leadership I value flexible and dynamic approaches.

Situational leadership looks at an individual’s behaviors and how they influence others through supportive and directive behaviors (Northouse, 2021). Directive behaviors take on a task-oriented approach and are concerned with establishing tangible goals, providing direction to followers, providing insight on methods of evaluation and providing timelines for unambiguous goals (Northouse, 2021). Supportive behaviors emphasize fostering a safe space for followers in a manner that is open and transparent, for example supportive behaviors include open communication form both leaders and followers (Northouse, 2021). The situational approach has quadrants that help put into perspective where one lands on the model and the level of work required to reach the desired balance between directive and supportive behaviors of situational leadership.

Authentic Leaders are those that experience life through a self-aware lens using their personal values, life experiences, and support team to ensure both authenticity and sincerity when leading (George et al., 2007). Whether their life experiences are positive or negative, authentic leaders are able to use these formative experiences as a catalyst in finding their passion for leading (George et al., 2007). In my personal life, I tend to adhere to a code of ethics governed by my professional training from the American Psychological Association (APA).

My awareness of being authentic regardless of the circumstances has been cultivated and instilled in me through the generational experiences of my family. George and colleagues suggest that authentic leadership starts with understanding the story of your life (George et al., 2007), for me that includes the experiences of those before me and what I am able to learn from them. My parents and grandparents lived through the apartheid regime in South Africa, my siblings born into it. While I was lucky enough to be born just a year after people of color were afforded their human rights, I have seen how at times equality is not sufficient for people who have been systematically oppressed. Instead, most times equity is the more appropriate response. I learned that in leadership it is important for both equal treatment of the team as well as recognizing the need for equity for those who face differentiated challenges. This requires the leader to be aware of their own abilities and weaknesses and to determine how to best help their team. Authentic leadership is effective when leaders create a safe and productive environment (Northouse, 2021). It is endorsed that there is a need for trust for authentic leadership to be effective. Additionally, authentic leadership is a learned skill that can be taught, and I am continuously learning. I challenge myself to be authentic, even in spaces that my authenticity may not be supported or appreciated.

References:

George, B., Sims, P., McLean, A., & Mayer, D. (2007). Discovering your authentic          leadership. Harvard Business Review, February, Reprint R0702H.

Northouse, P.G. (2021). Leadership: Theory and practice. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

At any job you begin at, there is always a “team” where coworkers and leaders are essentially working together to fulfill a mission. When you are working within a group, there are different social norms and factors that go along with it, some unconscious and conscious actions. Also, with the rise of technology advancement there is some nature of work that is being diminished by machines instead of using teamwork. As a result of this advancement, workers are lessening their specialized skill work and a concept of “deskilling ” is prominent. Deskilling takes place when there is the lack to learn and progress new skills that are beneficial for the work environment due to computers and machines doing the work for the group.

I am currently employed at Target where I have worked for the past year and a half. Working there has taught me how to gain problem-solving and communication skills. We identify as a team with leaders in each specific department. Thankfully, there are no jerks within my workplace as I truly enjoy working there and the people I am around everyday when I am there. It is important for communication and respect to effectively come together to complete a task.

When it comes to work motivation, our textbook says that with respect that human factors that managers can influence, employee performance is described as a joint objective of ability and motivation (Pinder,1998). An important task for managers is to motivate employees to reach the best of their ability in performance. At target, there is often days where the team members receive a treat in the break room such as Chic fil la or pizza. It reassures us that we are doing a great job and gives us the reassurance to keep getting the job done successfully with motivation.

In any workplace there is going to be a wide variety of people that do not have any familiarity with one another. The key is to get to know each other and communicate, to establish the leaders within the group, and to find the ultimate goal that is trying to be accomplished. It is important to remain open to gaining insight on other employee’s perspectives and perceptions of the mission trying to be accomplished. More brains involved the more intelligence is present to finish the task efficiently and rapidly.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

You’ve finally done it: you’ve put together the dream team and are on our way to the Andes mountains for the most important archeological expedition of your career. With you there’s Johannes the language expert, Ginger the anthropologist, Daniel the bones guy, and Paul. Paul does a lot of things but doesn’t speak much… probably for the best, as Paul also does a lot of things that you don’t know much about simply due to liability reasons. After 17 days of hiking in the cold, wintry weather you’ve reached the location from the secret map discovered inscribed on an old woman’s back hundreds of years ago – preserved and secretly stolen and recovered from many nationalities ever since. The intricately carved rock marks the spot, just like the map claimed it would. There’s also some language on a wildly deadly curse for anyone who disturbs this rock and descends into the cave beyond. 

Ginger, the anthropologist, insists that more excavation needs to be done in the surrounding area to ensure the safety of this cave. Johannes, the language expert, speaks over Ginger every time she attempts to voice her concerns, claiming he is the expert in the language after all – and he is telling you all that it’s clearly been misinterpreted. He literally scoffs at any idea to the contrary, raising his voice and demanding you produce your language expert credentials, since they must be more prestigious than his own since you’re questioning him. He also reminds everyone how hard you’ve all worked together to get here; all the nights in foreign lands you’ve spent together – practically a family! You’re a cohesive unit. Masters of your trades.

Johannes is confident with his analysis. You and the remaining group members rationalize that he is the expert, after all, and your collective experience doesn’t come close to his in this area. Plus, time is running out. This is day 17 of an expedition that’s only funded for 24.Pressure is on. Stakeholders are frothing at the bit. ALl of your reputations are at stake – if there’s a delay, who knows if even a community college will hire you to mop floors. Paul knows languages pretty well, as he must due to the nature of his “business,” but since he lacks the three doctorates that Johannes likes to bring up constantly, he keeps quiet – even though he is pretty sure the rock inscriptions are insidious warnings and a note about there being no handrail beware… He shrugs. Johannes is the expert. You, Ginger, Johannes, and Paul work together to push the rock away from the mouth of this cave only to immediately be overcome by the poisonous gasses that have been waiting for centuries to trap a greedy bunch of plunderers. 

The group in this overly dramatic example is an overly dramatic example of groupthink in action. Groupthink occurs when decisions are made by way of a rushed and ultimately flawed process resulting from strong pressures among group members to come to an agreement (Gruman et al., 2016). In this example, the group members were under pressure to complete the expedition with results from the cave in a restricted time that didn’t allow for the exploration of alternatives. They were insulated from others, alone in the Andes. Johannes slide into a directive leadership role – pushing for task completion above all else and reminding the other group members of their need to push to the goal fast, without embarrassment of failure. The situation was ripe for the group to fall victim to a devastating (and dramatic) decision to open the cave driven by groupthink.

Concurrence tendencies within a group are grown in an environment in which group members are looking to avoid disagreements during the process of decision making (APA Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.). Janis (1973) describes groupthink and a type of defective judgment not caused by human error in very cohesive groups. In a rush for a decision to favor outside sources, groupthink can lead to disastrous decisions that a group who had taken more time to thoroughly explore alternatives and options may not have taken. Driven by group norms, the desire to remain cohesive, and falling to the pressures of uniformity, groupthink decisions rarely result in positive decisions (Janis, 1973). 

It feels similar to the “if everyone else jumped off the cliff, would you also jump off the cliff?” hypothetical that parents posit to their children in regards to following the crowd after a particularly bad decision…. And it’s possible that those instances, also, were a product of groupthink. A sense of invulnerability in the kids’ group, rationalization that what they were doing was necessary, belief that what they were doing was okay, and pressure applied to any kid who decided to speak up. Classic groupthink territory, according to Janis (1973).

Groupthink can end with bad decisions being reached by good people due to the pressures to maintain group cohesiveness and perform/provide under pressure. While the example used is clearly for dramatic purposes, these situations have happened in real life – check out the classic groupthink situation that happened with the Challenger space shuttle and the O rings that were pushed aside as a problem and declared fit due to a major groupthink misstep. While group cohesiveness can be used in positive ways, it’s imperative that groupthink be avoided by ensuring that outsider information or observers are part of the decision making process and that each member has an equal footing to make decisions. 

Don’t let the Johannes of the world take us all out. 

References:

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.). https://dictionary.apa.org/concurrence-seeking

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Sage Publications, Incorporated.

Janis, I. L. (1973). GROUPTHINK AND GROUP DYNAMICS: A SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF DEFECTIVE POLICY DECISIONS*. Policy Studies Journal, 2(1), 19–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-0072.1973.tb00117.x

Having effective leadership within a team is what can make a really good team that works well together. Having a good leader that can help and communicate with others what needs to get done. Having that kind a good leadership on a sports team is necessary if you want a winning team. Tuckman’s stages of group development shows that you need effective leadership and have everyone else on the same page also. Groups and teams go through these stages according to Tuckman.

Teams go through stages though and according to Tuckman those stages are forming, Storming, Norming, Preforming, and Adjourning. The first stage forming is when a team first comes together and they are getting to know one another. Then the storming stage is probably when the first practice would come and you get to see how everyone works together and how good the players are going to be. Then is the Norming stage and that is when you start to get some cohesion in practices and there is a trust forming between everyone and a leader in a team starts getting everyone to come together. For example this article states, “In this stage, team members are creating new ways of doing and being together. As the group develops cohesion, leadership changes from ‘one’ teammate in charge to shared leadership. Team members learn they have to trust one another for shared leadership to be effective” (Tuckman’s Stages of group development, n.d.). Then, Performing is when there is games and everyone is playing well together and everyone in the game is performing well individually and together. The last stage is Adjourning which would be end of season where everyone has to part ways. Having good leadership is involved in all those steps.

Teams need to have effective leadership, someone who will step up and take charge and be able to create a solid team. For example this article states, “Transformative leadership focuses on creating a mission for a team to rally around. While this type of leadership can have spectacular results and cause team members to be highly motivated, not every leader is capable of this leadership style. To be a transformative leader, one must possess the ability to inspire and motivate others consistently and typically requires someone to be extremely articulate, extroverted, and comfortable making routine motivational speeches” (Relojo-Howell, 2022). Which shows that leadership that inspires you and motivates you to do and be better overall makes a better team environment. For a sports team not only do you need a good coach you also need a team player that also leads the team. Having someone out there actually playing the game is necessary to bringing the team together.

In conclusion, Having good leadership that allows everyone to be good at what they do and work well together, it will be a very successful team. Seeing the leader of a team overcome hardships and help other through their hardships is necessary for team development. Being able to overcome adversities and still be a successful team is what happens in the stages of development. Teams have stages of development that they need to go through these stages and have effective leadership also. Having leadership that inspires others and motivates others is how you can have a really good team.

References

Relojo-Howell, D. (2022, December 3). The psychology of teamwork: What makes a strong successful team. Psychreg. Retrieved February 22, 2023, from

https://www.psychreg.org/psychology-teamwork-what-make-strong-successful-team/

Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development – WCU of PA. (n.d.). Retrieved February 21, 2023, from https://www.wcupa.edu/coral/tuckmanStagesGroupDelvelopment.aspx

In the workplace today people are motivated to work hard at different levels. Where that motivation comes from and how it occurs is known as process theories. An example of a process theory is equity theory, which reveals that a person’s sense of fairness plays a significant role in determining their motivation at work. The inputs and outputs of a task are recorded in a mental ledger that employees use to compare their ratio of inputs to outputs to those of other employees. Such inputs include hard work, experience, and accomplishments, and some outputs would be salary, benefit, and pension. The more equity an employee recognizes in the workplace, the more motivated they will be.

I feel as if this theory is applicable in other aspects of our lives too. In general we tend to get motivated by rewards whether that be money, respect, or even approval. Without some sort of reward there is no incentive to work hard. If someone realizes another person is receiving a larger benefit for doing the same task, naturally it feels unfair and makes us less motivated. Knowing that someone receives more than you by doing less affects the way we perceive ourselves and can even cause insecurities.

This theory connects to the gender pay gap. It is very discouraging as a woman to be working just as hard as a man, but get paid less simply because of gender. As a female, when focusing on the inputs and outputs and comparing them to male employees it is seen as an example of inequity in the workplace. This in turn creates frustration and less motivation. Unfortunately women are under-represented in decision-making roles, which causes this gap to continue.

Equity theory suggests that employees are motivated by fairness in the workplace, which is accounted for by comparing themselves to peers. In order to increase productivity and effectiveness in the workplace this theory needs to be taken into consideration as it is discouraging to not be rewarded the same way as someone else doing the exact same (Dublin, 2022).This affects everyone in a business as it determines how hard someone is going to work and the amount of effort they will put into something. Knowing that no matter how hard you work, you will not make as much money as someone else is unfair. When the reason behind this is gender it is very upsetting, and something needs to be done as this theory plays an important role in individuals daily lives.

References:

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2005). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications, Inc.

Team, M. T. C., & Dublin, D. G. O. hailing from. (2022, November 23). The equity theory of motivation – how to keep your team motivated. expert. Retrieved February 20, 2023, from https://expertprogrammanagement.com/2017/06/equity-theory/ 

Sports is something I have always enjoyed to watch and play when I was younger. It is interesting to dig deeper into the psychology behind sports, and how it affects players as well as teams as a whole. The distraction theory is something that I believe can be displayed by players almost every game no matter the sport. Players put an immense amount of pressure on themselves to perform a certain way that it affects their overall skills as a result. This can be seen at every level of sports

When I first read about this theory in the textbook, I could immediately come up with so many different examples and scenarios of when this has happened. I remember going to so many high school basketball games where an amazing player would not perform to the best of their ability. According to the distraction theory, this is because they distracted themselves by focusing on the pressure of the game. I remember seeing this occur in games where more people were in attendance watching. Their confidence would begin to decrease because they are putting so much pressure on themselves. 

When I would see this occur in my high school basketball games, I didn’t think about the psychology behind it. It makes sense that in high pressure situations, athletes who have performed something so many times crack under the pressure. Their mind starts to think about so many things, and one of those things is mainly the outcome of the game and how that comes back on them. The textbook explains, “They found that most participants perceived choking to be caused by anxiety about the outcome of the game, about meeting others’ expectations (such as teammates, coaches, or spectators), and about their performance” (Gruman and Schneider, 2016). Because so many different things are going through their mind, something that usually comes so easy to them turns into one of the hardest tasks.

I think it is important for athletes, of all ages, to be aware of this theory and how it affects them. It is important to remind athletes to not put so much pressure on themselves because they are essentially sinking themselves out. They are not able to focus on the task they are supposed to be completing which makes them unable to perform. It is important for coaches to implement this theory into their athletes minds because it may help take the pressure off. If more athletes are aware of how this theory affects them they will be able to remind themselves that even when they aren’t playing their best, it is not their fault. 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

French and Raven’s (1959) five bases of power are often used to understand and analyze the sources of power that a leader can use to influence others. These five bases of power include:

Coercive power: the ability to punish or harm others to achieve compliance.
Reward power: the ability to provide rewards or incentives to influence behavior.
Legitimate power: power that is granted by virtue of one’s position or title.
Expert power: power that comes from possessing specialized knowledge or skills.
Referent power: power that comes from being admired, respected, and liked by others.

How could a leader apply French and Raven’s (1959) five bases of power in the process of managing a new team is a significant topic to discuss. From my point of view, a leader who is managing a new team can use each of these bases of power to create a positive and productive work environment. For each stage of French and Raven’s (1959) five power, with regard to coercive power, while this power should be used sparingly, a leader can use the threat of punishment or negative consequences to ensure that team members follow through on their responsibilities. For example, a leader might remind team members of the consequences of missing a deadline or failing to meet a quality standard. While reward power means that a leader can use rewards to motivate team members to perform well. For example, a leader might offer bonuses or recognition to team members who exceed their goals or who demonstrate exceptional teamwork. For legitimate power, a leader can use their position or title to set expectations for team members and create a sense of order and structure within the team. For example, a leader might establish a clear chain of command or create guidelines for how decisions will be made. In addition, expert power means that a leader who possesses specialized knowledge or skills can use this expertise to guide and advise team members. For example, a leader who is an expert in a particular field might offer insights and suggestions for how to approach a complex problem. Referent power is A leader who is admired, respected, and liked by team members who can use this influence to build strong relationships and create a positive work culture. For example, a leader might take the time to get to know each team member personally and show appreciation for their contributions.

In conclusion, a leader managing a new team could create a positive and productive work environment by using French and Raven’s five bases of power to balance the different types of power and adapt their leadership style to meet the needs of their team.

Reference

French, J. and Raven, B. (1959). The Bases of Social Power. In Studies in Social Power, D. Cartwright, Ed., pp. 150-167. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

In 1978, P. Chelladurai and colleagues proposed the multidimensional model of leadership. This model views athlete performance and satisfaction as influenced by three components of behavior: actual leader behavior, preferred leader behavior, and perceived leader behavior. When discrepancies occur between these components, an athletes performance can decrease as well as their satisfaction.

Autocratic leadership is one in which the coach establishes control over the team and uses it to achieve the results he/she wants (Western Governors University, 2020). These types of leaders form a strictly structured environment, instill defined rules/procedures, and do not receive input from other team members (Western Governors University, 2020; Gruman et al., 2016). The autocratic leader will use punitive behaviors as well as interrogative tactics to establish control and desired results (Horn et al., 2011). On the other hand, a democratic leader involves all team members in the decision-making process (Gruman et al., 2016). This leader encourages collaboration, asks for feedback, offers flexibility, and communicates as a whole instead of as an individual (National Society of Leadership and Success, 2022). Over time, sports-focused social psychological research has found correlations between athletic performance and what kind of leader athletes perceive their coaches as. But can one leadership style benefit one team and not the other?

As early as 1988, D.J. Garland and J.R. Barry examined the effects of athletes’ perception of their coach’s leadership style and their athletic performance. Through a multidimensional analysis, Garland and Barry (1988) found that an autocratic leadership style mainly contributes to athletic performance. Those who perceived their coaches as more autocratic had a lower overall athletic performance. The athletes who perceived their coaches as offering more positive feedback, more instruction, and more support overall had higher levels of athletic performance (Garland & Barry, 1988). Additionally, Horn et al. (2011) examined psychological characteristics and their correlation to preferred leadership styles. It was found that athletes with levels of neuroticism and ego-orientated motivation were more likely to prefer an autocratic coach. Consequently, athletes who had levels of extraversion and task-oriented motivation preferred a more democratic coach (Horn et al., 2011).

Through these two studies, it can be shown how the appropriate type of leadership style depends on the psychological characteristics of the teams’ members and how the members perceive the leader. This research can help those who are leaders become the leader they want to be. If someone truly wants to be a good leader they should examine how their members work and then ask their member’s opinions on the leadership within the team. These would be essential steps to take in determining what type of leadership style is suitable for their team.

References: 

Garland, D. J., & Barry, J. M. (1988). The Effects of Personality and Perceived Leader Behaviors on Performance in Collegiate Football. Psychological Record, 38(2), 237–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03395019

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. SAGE Publications.

Horn, T. S., Bloom, P., Berglund, K. M., & Packard, S. S. (2011). Relationship Between Collegiate Athletes’ Psychological Characteristics and Their Preferences for Different Types of Coaching Behavior. Sport Psychologist, 25(2), 190–211. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.25.2.190

National Society of Leadership and Success. (2022, June 15). Key Characteristics of Democratic Leadership. https://www.nsls.org/blog/key-characteristics-of-democratic-leadership

Western Governors University. (2020, September 29). What Is Autocratic Leadership? https://www.wgu.edu/blog/what-autocratic-leadership2009.html#close

The importance to understanding our diverse society is critical to avoiding conflict that arises because of lack of understanding of the cultural norms, that different groups live by. After all, as our country becomes more diverse, we must learn how to coexist. For example, in the United States we have a more individualistic mindset, whereas countries such as Mexico, there is a collectivism mindset, e.g., asking for a women’s hand use to be seen as a collective decision, in which the bride to be parents’ along with the rest of the immediate family would consider the marriage proposal. It wasn’t a decision that was left solely to bride, or the father and mother it was a collective decision. Not understanding why these decisions are made are important to understanding the cultural and the upbringing of that person. Just as the valued of advice of a close relative might seem like trivial to some cultural but to others it is almost as equivalent of advice from the mother and father.

Another aspect of cultural diversity is how masculinity, femininity, and how gender roles are viewed and influenced different countries (Lynch & Danely, 2013). I am not debating whether one is right or wrong but merely highlighting the fact that countries are different due to cultural norms that shape a person’s upbringing. Understanding what shapes a person upbringing is critical to understanding what influences them. A good example is that of countries that shape a societies gender role (Grumman & et al., 2016). One such case is in Mexico where gender roles are shaped by machismo. According to Lynch & Danley Machismo is seen as the “patriarchal masculinity that is characterized as womanizing and emotional withdraw” (pg. 67). Lynch & Danely also describe Mexican men as exhibiting these characteristics due to, “being the product of coercive unions between conquistadors and indigenous women (pg. 69).

Understanding this type of cultural diversity and what shapes those beliefs and behaviors is just as vital to those who don’t experience them firsthand. What is interesting is that certain cultures realize that certain behaviors or traditions are not all beneficial to the group. As Lynch & Danely described the Mexican people are going through a National Modernization.  After all, Machismo was something of a national identity but in recent years this has begun to shift towards what Lynch & Danely call “modernization.” Unfortunately, before this happened this mischaracterized most Mexican men (Lynch & Danely, 2013).

As our society become more diverse it is important to understand where some of these possible social norms, learned behaviors originate, if we are to try and coexist. One key element to understanding other cultures involves being exposed to those cultures. In an article by, Thijs & Verkuyten (2014), they state that classroom diversity alone does improve intergroup relations and that a holistic approach must be taken. Such as multicultural education, student teacher relationships, and the peer norms and networks, while also highlighting the role of parents.  An interesting point is that for diversity to succeed, exposure to different cultures must be made outside of the school environment. While this study does highlight the limitation of the inability to conduct longitudinal study it does give us insight into what may be required to increase diversity.

In another study by Bohman & Miklikowska (2021) which sought to examine the short-term and long-term effects of classroom diversity on intergroup relations in adolescents. In this longitudinal study by Bohman and Miklikowska they were able to prove the positive effects of intergroups relationships. Of interest, is that this study identified the importance of classroom intergroup exposure and how this exposure contributed to a positive correlation to diversity all the way through adolescent. Bohman & Miklikowska also point out that because the formative years of most children are those in the yearly school years, these are critical to the development of ethnic identity. As with all things, things change, and so do the believes and attitudes. Such is the case in this longitudinal study, in which these adolescents seemed to have lost those intergroup attitudes as they go closer to early adult hood. Despite this, exposure to different cultures and different groups early on is critical to have a better understanding of those cultures.

Understanding the diverse cultures is important to learning and becoming a more diverse nation, but so is learning where this begins and where it continues to grow. This is true especially if we wish to truly understand those groups around us. After all, our demographics are changing and welcoming those around us is important, if we are to remain vigilant and wish not to repeat the mistakes of our forefathers.

Lynch, C., & Danely, J. (Eds.). (2013). Transitions and transformations: Cultural perspectives on aging and the life course. Berghahn Books, Incorporated.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Thijs, J. and Verkuyten, M. (2014), School ethnic diversity and students’ interethnic relations. Br J Educ Psychol, 84: 1-21. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1111/bjep.12032

Bohman, A., & Miklikowska, M. (2021). Does classroom diversity improve intergroup relations? Short- and long-term effects of classroom diversity for cross-ethnic friendships and anti-immigrant attitudes in adolescence. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 24(8), 1372–1390. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220941592

Social dominance theory describes how processes at different levels of social organization, from ideologies to institutionalized discrimination work together to form and maintain a group based dominance. One common example of social dominance theory in the United States is the use of large institutionalized religion, such as Christianity to maintain power over smaller groups. We see this happen in a few different ways in our society.

Social dominance theory also describes that all individuals that belong to a group benefit from the resources that the group can provide for them. So in turn, the individual is motivated to protect the group (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). One large group within the United States that you can see Social Dominance Theory at work is Christianity. Christianity is the most popular religion in the U.S. and about 74% of adults in the U.S. identify as Christian (Pew Research, 2022). Religious institutions such as churches, are not required to pay taxes and can accumulate wealth quickly from tithes and charitable donations. This can result in wealthy individuals who then prioritize their own group and its desires. The money that these individuals gain is frequently used to lobby for policies that align with their beliefs. These policies can oppress and or take resources away from other groups.

Two policies that have been hotly debated in the news lately are the abortion ban and gay rights. These policies are heavily influenced by religion. Many people are anit-abortion and anit-gay marriage because of what pastors are preaching. Mega church pastors such as Kenneth Copeland, who has a home that is worth 7 million dollars, use social dominance to advance their position as much as possible. This allows other members of the clergy to advance their positions as much as possible as well.

Social Dominance theory can be witnessed in many areas of life. However, it can be easily seen through large religions such as Christianity. We need to be aware of social dominance theory and recognize how it can oppress others so that we may be able to advocate for those who are oppressed.

References:

Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Pew Research Center. (2022, June 13). Religious landscape study. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/religious-landscape-study/

Could you imagine if we all looked the same talked the same and grew up in the same culture?  One thing for sure is thar the United States and for that matter North America would not be recognized as the “melting pot of the world”.  While the U.S. became a country in 1776, diversity has been in North America for 14,000 years (Hurtigruten Expeditions, 2023).  It is common knowledge that Indigenous people were here first and with that they had different ways of gathering food, creating shelter and celebrating events.  Then came the Vikings and finally the European settlers.  We know that there must have been diversity at this time as different cultures were being seen with the Spanish, Portuguese, French and English claiming different parts of North America (Hurtigruten Expeditions, 2023).  What good could all these different people do for this vast land especially when the United States was formed?

Minus the many years of wars, when it was all settled diversity, which the many immigrants are part of that settled here could very well be considered a cornerstone for the success of the United States.  When we consider what has been brought over here from different cultures such as food, dance, music, religion language and innovation.  Today we are able to live the way we do because of diversity and immigrants.  In fact, immigrants are largely responsible for building the first railroads, cities and allowing us to have technology such as cell phones (Furman and Gray 2012).  Immigrants are engineers, mathematicians, computer, and physical scientist.  You may be surprised to know that a group of immigrants started companies like, Yahoo, Google and eBay.  “Business started and owned by immigrants employed over 4.7 million people in 2007” (Furman and Gray 2012).  The economy gets a boost when more people immigrate to the U.S. because of the demand for consumer goods.  The bottom line is immigrants which bring diversity to the nation are good for this country.  Still there are many with their heads buried in the sand and can’t see this.  If we do a study of our family tree most of us will see that our earliest relatives were in fact immigrants

I recently watched Titanic at the movie theater and the movie screamed diversity. If you have never seen the movie, it follows the timeline of the sinking of the RMS Titanic Ship.  From the beginning you notice the differences.  Irishmen built the ship, it sailed from England and the passengers were from different countries and social classes.  Can you guess where the ship was headed?  Of course, it was coming to America the aforementioned melting pot of the world.  While we have discussed that diversity can be good, there is also a dark side to it when others put themselves above everyone else.  Referencing the Titanic, there were several scenes where one class was put above the other specifically in comparisons to the higher class and lower-class passengers.  We see this in the situation where lower-class people are checked for health, pets are brought down to the lower deck to relieve themselves, lifeboats are loaded with upper class and the vial comment made “are the boats going to be seated by class”.  There is a clear low power distance as the higher class does not accept the inequalities of the lower class (Gruman et, al. 2016).  While this was on a ship, we see the same problems here in the United States in the form of racism.  Defined racism is a bias against an individual or a group of individuals based on their race/ethnicity (Gruman et, al. 2016).  Where I live, I can’t say that I have seen or heard much racism, however I am positive that it does go on.  My reasoning is because of what I feel is a form of segregation. There are several areas that are predominantly one race in the surrounding cities and towns around me.  Sometimes I think we have gone back in time because of this.  It increases the chances of children in these areas not being able to accept others that are different from them as they are not all going to live in their community forever.  Recently a white guy was convicted and sentenced for the senseless killing of 10 black people at a supermarket in Buffalo.  He drove over 200 miles to do this in the name of hate which is associated with racism (Bowman et, al. 2022).  Perhaps if he had some diversity training and was brought up in a different manner this would not have happened.

Is diversity a good thing or a bad thing?  It really depends on if it is accepted or not.  In the United States it has brought much good and allowed immigrants to thrive.  Diversity also has had a way of suppressing people and forming racist views because not everyone accepts those that are different.  This really goes back to our home training in my opinion.  Are we being brought up to accept or hate?  It has been said that sociological theories can change over time; in the case I hope that we can learn to accept everyone for the greater good of society and the United States of America.

Reference

Bowman et, al.  (2022).  “What we know so far about the Buffalo mass shooting”.  NPR.  Retrieved February 15, 2023 from:    https://www.npr.org/2022/05/15/1099028397/buffalo-shooting-what-we-know.

Furman, J. and Gray, D.  (2012).  “Ten Ways Immigrants Help Build and Strengthen Our Economy”.      The White House.  Retrieved February 15, 2023 from:  https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2012/07/12/ten-ways-immigrants-help-build-and-strengthen-our-economy#:~:text=As%20a%20nation%20of%20immigrants,from%20Google%20to%20the%20iPhone.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). “Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems”. Pp. 490-491, 502.   SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Hurtigruten Expeditions. 2023.  “A History of Settlers in North America”.  Retrieved February 15, 2023 from:  https://global.hurtigruten.com/destinations/north-america/inspiration/History-of-Settlers-in-North-America/#:~:text=North%20America%20has%20been%20a,land%20approximately%2014%2C000%20years%20ago.

“That’s the way the world works!” but should it be?

People who grows up in a particular culture learn social rules and beliefs (social axioms) from the people around them (Gruman et al., 2017). They then observe how certain behaviors are either rewarded or punished in that culture, and as a result, they may develop the belief that this is how the world operates. In other words, a person’s cultural background can strongly influence their perception of what is considered acceptable or normal behavior (Gruman et al., 2017). What does this mean for prejudices, biases and discrimination? Moreover, what does it mean for the individuals who are negatively impacted by certain axioms and should we just accept them for what they are?

In topics related to diversity and oppression, I think it is important to apply empathy and understand the mechanisms that perpetuate said oppression. That being said, empathy does not equal accepting, agreeing with or tolerating the oppression. It also does not mean that minority individuals should accept that “that’s the way the world works”. Instead, empathy might be a tool we use to understand how these behaviors continue and how we can address them from the root. According to the Pew Research Center (2017), “a majority of Americans (60%) say his election has led to worse race relations in the United States. Just 8% say Trump’s election has led to better race relations, while 30% say it has not made a difference.” What does this mean? Were race relations really worse or were the axioms of certain groups just brought to light?

It is more likely that these beliefs tensions existed prior to the 2016 elections. It is even more likely that former president Trump just gave voice to a pre-existing community opposed to creating said community with those pre-existing beliefs and values. That is not to say that his actions and rhetoric did not encourage or exacerbate racist behaviors. Understanding the theory of axioms, it is even more likely that individuals who perpetrate and perpetuate racism are surrounded by others who are alike. That is the way their world works. So how do we as a society dismantle problematic axioms (not limited to racism) systemically?

This brings me back to my earlier point. If we do not understand the mechanisms that promote and maintain these axioms, solutions may be ineffective. Minorities and allies alike could benefit from understanding the “why” behind people’s behaviors in order to effectively address the behaviors themselves. You might be asking yourself why even addressing problematic axioms even matters. In relation to race, here’s why. Racism hinders victims (of discrimination) from reaching their full potential and contributing to society, thereby weakening the community as a whole. Racism also limits the benefits that the perpetrator could gain from the victim’s potential contributions. Furthermore, it increases the likelihood of retaliation by the victim and goes against ideals related to freedom, equity and equality. (Not to mention that, it is noted that racism is illegal in many cases). With that I leave you with are 13 principles outlined by the Souther Poverty Law Center for their Learning for Justice initiative on HOW to address these axioms on a systemic level. They have outlined these principles from the works of Hawley and Jackson (1995).

• PRINCIPLE 1: STRATEGIES SHOULD ADDRESS BOTH INSTITUTIONAL AND INDIVIDUAL SOURCES OF PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE CONTEXTS AND SITUATIONS IN WHICH THE PARTICIPANTS IN THE PROGRAM OR ACTIVITY LEARN, WORK, AND LIVE.
• PRINCIPLE 2: STRATEGIES SHOULD SEEK TO INFLUENCE THE BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS, INCLUDING THEIR MOTIVATION AND CAPABILITY TO INFLUENCE OTHERS, AND NOT BE LIMITED TO EFFORTS TO INCREASE KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS.
• PRINCIPLE 3: STRATEGIES SHOULD DEAL WITH THE DISPOSITIONS AND BEHAVIOR OF ALL RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS INVOLVED.
• PRINCIPLE 4: STRATEGIES SHOULD INCLUDE PARTICIPANTS WHO REFLECT THE RACIAL, ETHNIC, AND LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY OF THE CONTEXT AND SHOULD BE STRUCTURED IN SUCH A WAY AS TO ENSURE COOPERATIVE, EQUAL-STATUS ROLES FOR PERSONS FROM DIFFERENT GROUPS.
• PRINCIPLE 5: STRATEGIES SHOULD HAVE THE SUPPORT AND PARTICIPATION OF THOSE WITH AUTHORITY AND POWER IN ANY GIVEN SETTING.
• PRINCIPLE 6: STRATEGIES SHOULD INVOLVE CHILDREN AT AN EARLY AGE, AND NEW ENTRANTS TO ORGANIZATIONS SHOULD BE CONTINUALLY ENCOURAGED AND REINFORCED.
• PRINCIPLE 7: STRATEGIES SHOULD BE PART OF A CONTINUING SET OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES THAT ARE VALUED AND INCORPORATED THROUGHOUT THE SCHOOL, COLLEGE, OR OTHER ORGANIZATION.
• PRINCIPLE 8: STRATEGIES SHOULD EXAMINE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES ACROSS AND WITHIN RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS, INCLUDING DIFFERENCES RELATED TO SOCIAL CLASS, GENDER, AND LANGUAGE.
• PRINCIPLE 9: STRATEGIES SHOULD RECOGNIZE THE VALUE OF BICULTURAL AND MULTICULTURAL IDENTITIES OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS, AS WELL AS THE DIFFICULTIES CONFRONTED BY THOSE WHO LIVE IN TWO OR MORE CULTURES.
• PRINCIPLE 10: STRATEGIES SHOULD EXPOSE THE INACCURACIES OF MYTHS THAT SUSTAIN STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES.
• PRINCIPLE 11: STRATEGIES SHOULD INCLUDE THE CAREFUL AND THOROUGH PREPARATION OF THOSE WHO WILL IMPLEMENT THE LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES FOR ADAPTING METHODS TO THE PARTICULAR SETTING.
• PRINCIPLE 12: STRATEGIES SHOULD BE BASED ON THOROUGH ANALYSES OF THE LEARNING NEEDS OF PARTICIPANTS AND ON CONTINUING EVALUATION OF OUTCOMES, ESPECIALLY EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR.
• PRINCIPLE 13: STRATEGIES SHOULD RECOGNIZE THAT LESSONS RELATED TO PREJUDICE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES FOR ANY PARTICULAR RACIAL OR ETHNIC GROUP MAY NOT TRANSFER TO OTHER RACES OR GROUPS.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4833-6973-0

Hawley, W. D., & Jackson, A. W. E. (1995). Toward a common destiny: Improving race and ethnic relations in America. Jossey-Bass/Wiley.

Pew Research Center. (2017). Most Americans say Trump’s election has led to worse race relations in the US. www.pewresearch.org

“Women are fun to play with, but when it comes to getting things done, they are worthless.” This was a phrase that was shared verbatim to my husband by one of his past employers. It is scenarios like this that make my skin crawl and proves that sexism in the workplace is still very much alive. The ignorance of abilities of the opposite sex is disturbing and creates a rift in organizations when these variations of skills should be capitalized on rather than seen as a disadvantage. In addition to bad behavior such as this example, another area to consider in the workplace is the ongoing inequity in pay. Sexism exists but isn’t always spoken aloud because blatant discrimination may come back to haunt the offender. But while these words may go unspoken, the pay differential speaks for itself.

According to a study compiled in 2021 for the year of 2020, women make approximately 84% of what men make (Barroso & Brown, 2021). While the gap is closing, it is nowhere near official closure. This makes me think of a scenario, when I worked at Kmart (what feels like a lifetime ago), a co-worker (Brenda) and I were discussing our current pay rate. (As we know this is a practice most employers forms upon for their own benefit.) Anyway, Brenda and I secretly shared our hourly pay rate with one another, and it was discovered that I made more than her by a nickel. She was livid about this fact and went to HR to insist on making the same amount that I did. Five cents may seem petty, but it was the principle of the matter, not the nickel itself. We held the same job title, were assigned the same tasks, had the same work ethic. This experience is how I feel about men and women doing the same job and not being paid the same. I’m not going to go as far as saying that men or women that are out there exerting significant physical work, or putting their life on the line should make the same as someone who is a receptionist at a dentist office. But what I AM saying is that if two individuals are doing the same job, they should be paid the same regardless of gender. It isn’t always just about the money; it is also the principle of the matter.

During research on this topic, I was surprised to find that there is a day called “Equal Pay Day” and this day represents the amount of additional time women would have to work to equal the amount of pay a man made the year prior (2023). This year that day falls on March 15^th. One reason as to why I think this may continue to be problematic is because of something called diffusion of responsibility. A case study shared by Gruman, et. al. refers to this phrase in consideration of women experiencing an unsavory situation but not doing anything about it because they think someone else will (2017). I think it is time to acknowledge that we can’t always count on others to fight our battles for us and make a conscience effort to take a stand on issues that count. One of these is always pursuing equity among sexes in every way.

Works Cited:

Barroso, A. & Brown, A. (2021, May 25). Gender pay gap in U.S. held steady in 2020. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/05/25/gender-pay-gap-facts/

Equal Pay Day. (2023). National Today. Retrieved from https://nationaltoday.com/equal-pay-day/#:~:text=Equal%20Pay%20Day%20is%20observed,gap%20between%20men%20and%20women.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L.M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems, 3^rd edition. SAGE Publications.

Social dominance theory and white privilege both can play a role with each other. SDT is studies of how someone comes to hold social dominance and what characteristics come with that. Then privilege is someone who is more at an advantage to get what they want and desire while other struggles to get what they want. They both play a role with each other because privilege is how someone get social dominance a lot of the time and someone’s race can often play a role in that.

To define privilege, “Privilege exists when one group has something of value that is denied to others simply because of group membership and not based on what a person or group has done or failed to do (Johnson, 2006). For those who routinely benefit from privilege, the challenge is to not quickly deny its existence. It is important to recognize that privilege is a part of the reality that helps some while it impedes others’ experiences” (Baldwin, 2016). Being privileged is an advantage, your skin color and gender can put you farther ahead and get you the things that you want while other struggle to go get the things that they want.

To define social dominance theory, “SDT is a theory of social and intergroup relations that focuses on how people develop hierarchy supporting belief structures as a support for institutional dominance. It involves studies of who is likely to hold such attitudes, how they come to do so, and what are the ramifications for thought and action” (Islam, 2014). Males today tend to hold a lot more higher positions of power than women and have more social dominance than others.

In conclusion, most of the time white men are more likely to have social dominance and that’s because of their privilege playing a role in that. In general men still have more privilege than women but people races do play a role in how privileged they are too.  There are people out there advocating for people of color and fighting for racial and gender equality still. Social dominance and privilege play major roles in how people acquire jobs and how people get the things that they want.

References

Baldwin, J. (2016). Understanding race and privilege. National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). Retrieved February 15, 2023, from https://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources-and-podcasts/diversity-and-social-justice/social-justice/understanding-race-and-privilege

Islam, G. (2014). Social Dominance Theory. In: Teo, T. (eds) Encyclopedia of Critical Psychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5583-7_288

When it comes to the most common identification psychology in life, it should be buying fashionable products after following the trend. Social proof is most persuasive when an individual feels unfamiliar or uncertain about a particular situation. That’s because the people around you have the most significant influence on you. Often we look around for evidence of what we should do, adapting our behavior to that of similar people.

This is reminiscent of the important experiment that psychologists use to test the principle of social proof with a wallet dropped in the city center (Cialdini,, 2021). If the person who finds the wallet sees the pre-loaded letter proving that the wallet was lost for the second time and the owner still has a letter written by the person who found it for the first time in the wallet, then replace the letter with a letter written in standard English and just arrived. Broken English written by foreigners in the United States yields two results. If the first person to find the wallet resembles the average American, is the Manhattanite who found the letter and wallet more susceptible to his influence? The answer is: if the first person to pick up the wallet is a foreigner, only 33% of people return the wallet. If the person who finds the wallet later thinks that the previous kind of person is the same as himself, the possibility of returning the wallet becomes 70%.

This example shows an important condition for the principle of social proof to work: We judge what is appropriate for us based on the behavior of others, especially when we feel that these people are similar to us. Similarity allows the principle of social proof to exert its greatest influence when we observe the behavior of people who are similar to us. This means that we are more inclined to emulate people who are similar to us than people who are different from us. For example, in the workplace, if a new female employee dresses in a unique style, other female employees will immediately spend a lot of money on equipment.

How to resist the influence of environmental uncertainty is also worth discussing. In fact, most of the time, people are unwilling to guard against the information provided by social proof. It provides behavioral information that is often legitimate and valuable. With it, we can move confidently through life, making countless decisions without having to examine the pros and cons of each decision. In this sense, the principle of social proof equips us with a wonderful kind of autopilot, not unlike the one on most airplanes. But autopilot occasionally fails. The solution to this situation is that when we are confronted with clearly falsified social evidence, we can protect ourselves well with just a little more vigilance. When confronted with fake social proof, temporarily cut off autopilot. It’s not difficult to do as long as you try to relax as much as possible.

Not being blinded by group action or hijacked by groupthink requires insight and keen awareness. Therefore, no matter what kind of work you are engaged in, lifelong learning not only makes the human brain more flexible and more active in adapting to various emergencies but also resists danger at critical moments.

Reference

Cialdini, R. B. (2021). Influence, new and expanded: The psychology of persuasion. HarperCollins.

Social identity refers to a type of identity that is derived from their group memberships, perhaps their race, ethnicity, gender, religion, nationality, and a tremendous amount of other social categories. I’m sure many of you can recognize a group in which you may belong to and whether you are aware or not, you may carry some biases.  Social identity can have an overwhelming impact on intergroup conflict and cooperation, as individuals tend to identify more strongly with and favor their own group.

In regard to intergroup conflicts, individuals tend to view their own group as more honorable and knowledgeable than other groups. These comparisons can lead to dehumanization and aggression towards members of other groups. This can and has led to a variety of negative outcomes, including discrimination, violence, and war. Social identity drives the formation of ingroups and outgroups, these groups create boundaries between groups which reinforce stereotypes and prejudice. It is crucial to consider that the categorization of groups does necessarily have to based factual or observed differences between groups, an individual only needs to perceive themselves as being a part of a certain group and different from another group to induce a sense of group membership (Gruman et al., 2017).

Alternatively, social identity can also promote cooperation between groups. That is, that individuals are more likely to work towards common goals and engage in positive intergroup relations when they perceive their group as being similar to and sharing common goals with members of other groups. The contact hypothesis has shown that under a positive and supportive context, intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and promote cooperation between groups (Gruman et al., 2017).

Social identity is a complex and multifaceted construct. Its influence on intergroup relations varies depending on several factors, such as the salience of different social identities, power dynamics between groups, and the context in which intergroup interactions occur. Understanding social identity as well as its role in intergroup conflict and cooperation has significant implications for promoting peaceful and equitable relations between groups. This area of study must be further examined, if we are ever to come to a resolution for the conflict in intergroup relations.

Reference

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

How many of you are/were a part of greek life? I don’t really need to ask how  you see/saw yourself because I can probably guess. How? Because I know exactly how I would answer. If you ask me what I am pertaining to college/greek life, I will proudly answer with “I am a Kappa Delta”. Not I am in a sorority, but specifically a Kappa Delta.

Being in a sorority or fraternity is not just a group title, it is an identity. For most, becoming a sister or brother allows college students to be a part of something bigger than themselves (even if they have to pay outrageous amounts for it). I know I was a bit of an outcast my first year at college and becoming a Kappa Delta gave me a new identity filled with respect and confidence.

So, what does this have to do with social identity theory and intergroup relations? Everything!

Not only does greek life support the idea of contact hypothesis proposed by Gordon Allport, but it supports social identity theory and social dominance theory (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). With regards to the contact hypothesis, being a part of a sorority and working together does decrease attitudes and behaviors towards each other in the group, but it can definitely increase negative attitudes and behaviors towards those outside of the group. This in-group/out-group bias is a large part that gives greek life a bad reputation.

When one joins a greek life group like a sorority, their membership with that group basically consumes their identity as well. Following social identity theory, members believe they are a part of the group, membership is very important to one’s self concept, and members are very committed to the group (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). All members of the sorority are considered the in-group while those not in the sorority, or worse, not in greek life are seen as the out-group and essentially “less than” (Ortiz & Thompson, 2020).

Sororities also base themselves on hierarchies as well. There is the “queen bee” or president, followed by the council, and then the rest of the members without a title. The sorority is motivated to behave based on the level of the hierarchies and strive to maintain balance in ways like enforcing rules and not speaking out of line (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016). Sororities are high in social dominance because they are motivated to defend their group and membership at all times, no matter the circumstance (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016).

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Ortiz, R. R., & Thompson, B. A. (2020). Sorority see, sorority do: How social identity and media engagement relate to in-group stereotyping and self-stereotyping. Psychology of Popular Media, 9(3), 311–317. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000236

The biopsychosocial model recognizes that all health, including mental health, is influenced by a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors, and that a purely biomedical approach to understanding health problems is lacking (Gruman, 2016). The biopsychosocial model accounts for nuances attached to illness, motivation for recovery, response style, and social support, which all play a role in how people experience illness (Gruman, 2016). The biopsychosocial model does not completely reject the biomedical model, but instead recognizes the importance of including psychological and social influences in the understanding of health and illness (Gruman, 2016). This is important in treating individuals who have serious mental illness (SMI). SMI refers to a subset of mental illnesses that are more intense and cause significant disruptions in a person’s daily life (NAMI, 2021).

SMI is diagnosed when a person has one or more mental disorders that result in serious functional impairment and limit their ability to carry out major life activities (NAMI, 2021). SMI has significant impacts on one’s ability to function in different aspects of their lives, in fact, functioning is an important part of DSM-V diagnosis. Typically, for a diagnosis to be given for any mental illness, an individual needs to meet symptomatology under the various criteria and the symptoms need to impact their functioning for it to be diagnosable. As such, it’s important to understand not only how to treat the symptoms but to treat route causes and the behaviors, environments or factors that perpetuate SMI.

The biopsychosocial model focuses on the whole person. For individuals who intend on going into clinical psychology and helping individuals cope with SMI it’s important to understand all the effects and impacts of the SMI. Additionally, it’s important for clinicians and practitioners to collaborate and possibly engage in blended case management. Blended case management is a service typically implemented for eligible individuals with SMI, including children or individuals with emotional disorders, in gaining access to needed medical, social, educational and other services. When collaborating clinicians, practitioners  and (for children) teachers alike are able to collaborate to provide the client with services that will help them manage in the various aspects of their life.

As a therapist in training, I have noted that for some clients, particularly those with SMI, it is a challenge (almost impossible) to work on treatment goals or to get clients to improve behaviors if they require medication and do not take it. As such, when engaging in triage for clients, clinicians will encourage clients to work on taking their medication. Medication is used as a tool to help clients regulate so that they can begin taking charge and control in their lives. Then in turn, clinicians can focus on aspects of the client’s life where functioning is important such as eating, sleeping and hygiene. Once the client is able to gain control in these aspects of their life, it is more likely that they will be able to take on broader concepts and goals such as emotion regulation, self-esteem etc. The biopyschosocial model encourages this integrated form of treatment. Additionally, this model is dynamic as various aspects can be worked on simultaneously and does not require a fixed process. This model is adaptable to the individual client needs.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

National Institute of Mental Health. Mental illness 2021 National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Illness. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/mental-illness.shtml. Accessed February 8, 2023. 

When you think of the word health what is the first thing that comes to you mind?  If you are like me, you may think about the day at hand and if your healthy enough to get through it.  This may be a weird way to think as many people think about the future and their long-term health.  That is fine and dandy but not everyone’s minds think alike.  There are some people that have a hard time getting through a day much less a week.  I’m not saying that I have issues like this, however I just find it simpler and less stressful to think short term rather than long term.  It’s one of the ways I stay healthy.

If you are new to Psychology or don’t have a background in the medical field, you may be shocked to know that something as simple as rejection or the feeling of loneliness can lead to depression.  The onset of depression can ruin a person’s day and if bad enough can have lasting consequences.  Some may think that loneliness means that we tend to be by ourselves and may have no friends or significant other.  While this is part of it, the official definition is “the sad yearning for intimacy that results from perceived deficiencies in the number and quality of friendships (Gruman et, al. 2016).  As we grow older especially into adulthood, I feel it is easier to get over having a number or even quality friends.  I know when I was younger, I wanted and, in some cases, needed friends, however now I really have two that I would call true friends. Being able to talk to these two during different situations has kept me from being depressed.  As aforementioned if not taken care of right away loneliness can lead to depression which can then be lumped into the hopelessness theory of depression.  Those at risk may be vulnerable or in a world of negativity which leads to them thinking that nothing good will ever happen and they do not have the ability to affect this (Gruman et, al. 2016).  There is hope no pun intended as a clinical psychologist can be called to address the situation.

You may be wondering what a clinical psychologist is.  The first thing to know is that you might hear it called social-clinical interface.  The goal is to understand, diagnosis and limit psychological problems.  Clinical psychologists tend to have a “special area that they focus on and treat patients with serious mental illness” (Gruman et, al. 2016).  While one of their jobs is to diagnose people, they must remain unbiased as if they don’t, they could misdiagnosis somebody which is referred to as a false positive.  The hard part about this type of job is that people walk through the door with so many different issues.  To help minimize diagnosis due to having a bias approach clinical psychologist go through training on cultural diversity which is accredited by the American Psychological association (Gruman et, al. 2016).  While clinical psychologist are very knowledgeable in their field any training that can hone their skills is valuable.  In a hopelessness theory of depression case the psychologist may rely simply on the word hopeful.  They do not use medicine here and shift towards counseling by encouraging the client to create an environment of positivity.  To do this they will recommend that the patient set small goals that can be achieved and then build off them (Gruman et, al. 2016).  The psychologist can also have a session of role playing to assist in creating this environment.  This is not the be all and know all of treating depression, but it is a start.

Whether you know it or believe it we have all had a form of depression at one point in our lives.  It may have been when someone died, we lost a friend, or something did not go the way we planned or hoped.  How have we handled it is the key here.  Did we let it take over our lives and consume us or did we think happy thoughts and keep moving? It may be hard to understand why people can’t get over different life events or handle a little bit of loneliness.  The truth of the matter is our minds don’t think alike.  Why let someone you know live in a world of hopelessness or despair? Instead of trying to understand it and playing Dr. Phil, we should get the person some professional help, maybe that of clinical psychologist.

Reference

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems.  Pp.  141-143, 153-154, 159.  SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Physical and mental health are omnipresent in our current society. Many of us, if not all of us have encountered some kind of mental health disorder or physical disease, whether it be a family member, friend, stranger, or even ourselves. With the growing prevalence of mental health and even physical health, as people these days are becoming sicker and sicker, it makes one question the approaches clinicians use when addressing conditions. Two common approaches are the biomedical approach and the biopsychosocial approach. Each of these approaches are fundamental to treating illnesses and somewhat connection, but each are unique. Now which of these approaches better handles illness?

The biomedical approach is a theoretical framework based on the idea that illness can be entirely explained or understood by examining issues with a person’s biological function (Gruman et al., 2017). This approach holds a unique perspective on health, in that someone in good health would be classified by the absence of disease, as opposed to considering other factors of health and well-being. When using the approach clinicians and doctors tend to focus on lower-level biological processes. The importance of this approach is one that cannot be argued as it is responsible for medical advances that have led to many cures of life-threatening diseases.  With that said, does that mean it is the best approach to use for all illnesses?

The biopsychosocial approach is a theoretical framework based of the idea that health and illness can be explained through examining issues with many aspects of a person’s life, aspects such as biological, psychological, and social (Gruman et al., 2017). This approach can be applied to both disease and mental health.  It acknowledges the role that biology has to play in understanding health and illness, while considering other factors. This approach is not focused on biological processes solely, but instead examines them concurrently with psychological processes and socio-environmental influences.

Each approach has benefits and negatives, though one to be seems far more limiting and outdated than the other. That is, the biomedical approach. This approach ignores such a massive number of influences that I would argue makes it useless to an extent. What I mean by this is that even in treating disease the is psychological and social components. By only focusing on biology, you are not getting the full story. Consider two people suffering from the same disease, from a biomedical perspective their situations could be expected to be quite similar, but as we know things like social support, mental health, and overall perspective have a huge role to play when it comes to disease. Now looking at it in terms of treating mental illness, it would be neglectful to only focus on the biological aspects of the illness when such a large portion is psychological. Taking a biomedical approach could lead to clinicians not believing their patients if there is no biological evidence. I believe the biopsychosocial approach should be the main approach used when treating either disease or mental illness, as it does not ignore biology but uses it in combination with psychology and social factors to help understand and treat illness.

Reference

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

Social anxiety is the fear of being judged in a negative manner by those around you. Most people experience social anxiety at certain points in their life. The kind of social anxiety that comes about during presentations or during high stress situations is not the type of social anxiety that many people deal with on a daily basis. Social anxiety can be a debilitating mental disorder that can make those who suffer from it struggle to ever live a normal life.

Social anxiety is a mental disorder that hits quite close to home for me. My stepbrother struggles with severe social anxiety. This is not the type of social anxiety that only hits him in stressful situations. The type of social anxiety that he lives with on a daily basis is the kind that makes him truly struggle to have any normal interactions at all. He has severe panic attacks in crowds and cannot be around too many people at one time. He lives his life in the constant fear that he has said or done something embarrassing.

Living a life where you feel you are constantly judged by everyone around you can be exhausting. The truth is, most people are too caught up in their own lives to even notice you are around them at all. People with social anxiety struggle to see life in that way. They feel that eyes are always on them and they need to always just fit in. Being unique in any way is a person with social anxiety worst nightmare.

Humans, by nature, are fairly social beings. Some are more social than others but for the most part, everyone needs some sort of social interaction and feeling of closeness to those around them to live a “normal” life. This is a reason that social anxiety can be so hard on those who suffer from it. By nature, we are meant to be social organisms who work together to accomplish goals. Having severe social anxiety forces people to cut out all other people from their lives due to their fear of human interaction. This cuts out a large part of what makes a human a human. Isolating yourself from others can increase feelings of anxiety and depression which makes social anxiety an extremely vicious cycle.

Luckily, there is help out there! There are trained psychologists, psychiatrists, and counselors that can help those suffering from social anxiety be able to experience normal human interactions. These mental health professionals can help those with social anxiety feel more confident and sure of themselves around peers. There is even medication out there that can drastically help with feelings of panic and anxiety such as SSRI’s or benzodiazepines. There is always help out there for those who suffer from this tough yet manageable disorder.

Mental health is something that was not always studied or looked at to be as important as it is today. Over past decades, there has been a rise in suicide and depression rates that stem from environmental factors as well as psychological factors too. I never really paid much attention to the importance of mental health until I was 16 years old and my dad committed suicide. My whole view on mental health and depression changed, as it hit very close to home and I was experiencing tremendous amounts of grief. I personally fell into this loop of depression and it was hard to find my way out. As our book states, genetic factors and abnormal brain factors do play a role in mental health disorders, but there is more to the picture.

Loneliness can be very powerful and an overbearing feeling of lacking intimacy and relationships with the people around you. Social loneliness is a concept of the link between ones’ desired amount of friends and the actual amount of friends that are present and there for them. Emotional loneliness is deeper as it is pertains to how you feel about the intimacy you desire and the intimacy you actually have from others. Loneliness is the start to depression, which is a very serious mental health disorder.

From a study in our book by Smith and Rhodes (2015), they evaluated seven participants who were seeking help for signs of depression by using qualitative research. The findings were that most of the participants had feelings of loss and emptiness. Like nothing mattered and there was essentially no point in living life. I believe that this is how my Dad felt during the months leading up to his death. He lived alone and I would stay with him occasionally, but he did not have a significant other for years prior and didn’t have many friends. At the time, I did not realize or see any signs, but most times people hide these hurtful feelings and keep it inside to a point where they can’t anymore.

The helplessness theory of depression is present when two factors are present which is vulnerability and negative environmental circumstances. Vulnerability can coincide with a negative attitude towards every aspect of life with believing that bad things always happen and there is nothing you can to do change it. Most times, a person cannot control the negative environmental factors around them and can influence feelings of loneliness and ultimately lead to depression. Mental health is as important as any physical health being that the brain and the body are essentially intertwined and not separate entities.

Many young adults have experienced something traumatic enough that can put them at high risk for PTSD. Especially with new adults given a bunch of freedom at once and do not know what to do with it. Many of these people can find themselves in a situation that they did not mean to get in but did. For example, a lot of young people may experience sexual assault at one point or know someone who has been sexually assaulted. Being sexually assaulted can put you at risk for PTSD. Going to therapy to treat PTSD symptoms can be and is effective and two therapies that can be effective are group therapy and psychodynamic therapy.

To be able be able to talk to someone or a group of people about what happened to you and how it made you feel can make you feel so much better. For example, “Group therapy can be very effective to help survivors focus on the present and share experiences with others in a safe and empathetic environment. According to one survey, over half of the women who experienced sexual assault within the previous five years never told anyone about their trauma. This silence can have an important impact on the development of PTSD, as the degree of support received can influence symptom severity” (Chivers-Wilson, 2006). Being able to sit down and speak up about what happened can make you feel heard and feel supported. Especially with group therapy, that is a small group of people there that have experienced something similar and can relate back to you. Being silent about the trauma you endured can eat at someone and cause a ton of mental stress and potentially PTSD symptoms. Group therapy is an effective treatment and can really help with symptoms of PTSD.

Another therapy is Psychodynamic therapy and that is; “Psychodynamic therapy focuses on the emotional conflicts caused by the trauma, especially as they pertain to early life experiences. This helps to develop self-esteem, effective ways of thinking and coping, and may be used to treat PTSD. As discussed earlier, focusing on the past is associated with poorer adjustment and present control should be encouraged. As such, psychodynamic therapy may be less effective than other therapies for assault victims” (Chivers-Wilson, 2006). Though this type of therapy may not be as effective it does take a way of looking at the past and the emotions that were felt during that time. It does re live the experience potentially which might be why it is not as effective. But this therapy uses a lot of self-reflection and self-examination which can open the patient’s eye to why they are having the problems they are having.

In conclusion, group therapy and psychodynamic therapy can be effective when treating PTSD.  Group therapy is talking about your experience to a group of people who all have a similar experience to you. Which has been found to be effective, it makes the victim feel heard and able to relate to peers also. Another therapy is Psychodynamic therapy that involves a lot of self-examination with a therapist one on one. Therapy options and what can be effective is all dependent on the individual, sometimes one on one is more effective than a group. Being in a group can make someone feel like they aren’t being heard and the same thing could be with one-on-one therapy too. PTSD is a complex disorder and can affect a lot of people and most do not seek help but for those who do should have options on what can be effective for them.

References

Chivers-Wilson K. A. (2006). Sexual assault and posttraumatic stress disorder: a review of the biological, psychological and sociological factors and treatments. McGill journal of medicine : MJM : an international forum for the advancement of medical sciences by students, 9(2), 111–118.

In consideration of the biomedical and biopsychosocial models, I do feel that each of them has their place in consideration of diagnostic and treatment methods when it pertains to physical health. But I would argue that for the diagnosis and treatment of mental health, the biopsychosocial model is more appropriate and beneficial.  From personal experience, mental health issues are not associated solely with biomedical models and the reason I would say that is because of the stigma associated with mental health conditions. Case in point, let’s say you call off work because you have a stress fracture in your foot. You would get several thoughts and prayers and well wishes for healing and get well soon comments. Let’s leave off the “fracture” and you simply call off because of stress, often that would be frowned upon, unaccepted, or unaccommodated. If there was equity in physical and mental health, such a substantial stigma would not exist. Because of this, I feel there is significance in supporting the biopsychosocial model or as my organization like to call it, “holistic”.

Going back to my example, perhaps if we were better in supporting a biopsychosocial model, there would be less of a need for a biomedical model. I’d like to share an example of how this might play out. I recently had a staff member that called off to myself as her direct one up and the office manager of the clinic she is assigned to. Her reason for calling off was because she wasn’t feeling well and hadn’t slept. Side note-she had called off on a Monday and she had shared on social media that she had gotten engaged over the weekend. When I met with this staff member for our one and one, I had remarked I was surprised she called off because she wasn’t feeling well as opposed to her big news. She replied that I was correct, she had plans over the weekend that were put on hold because of celebrations and needed Monday as a get things done day. She said she knew I would have supported her but didn’t feel that she could be honest because the office manager wouldn’t have taken kindly to it. I was happy that she was open and honest with me because I often advocate and remind my staff that taking care of their mental health is just as important as their physical health. You mind and body support one another reciprocally. If you can call off because your body doesn’t feel good, you can call off because your mind doesn’t feel good too. Coincidentally, this same staff member was often sick in her previous role because of the toxic environment she was in. To me, this proves that your social experiences are factors in consideration of your mental and therefore your physical health.

The health organization I work for is quite expansive and encompasses several service lines such as primary care, gynecology, cardiology, bariatrics, oncology, the list goes on and on. I have worked in the behavioral health department for over the last decade. Over the last few years, we have been inundated with requests for help. We have had the arduous task of keeping up with the need and simply have a higher demand than available resources. We determined we needed to change the way we provided outpatient care. In retrospect it was not the most convenient time as we were contending with a pandemic and redesigning an entire department. Nevertheless, we charged on. The direction which was determined to be the most beneficial was a holistic model in which we are treating the whole person as opposed to just one piece of it. This would benefit our organization in totality working collaboratively and help our clients in eliminated isolated siloed care and worked in tandem with the other providers which the clients were a part of. When you go to the WellSpan Philhaven website, the main page touts “Promoting Hope, Healing, and Wholeness” (www.wellspanphilhaven.org). While there have been some individuals who have been interested in care be disappointed because of this criteria, it was determined to be the best method in which to treat our clients.

Suffice it to say, I am all in favor of a holistic approach which could be compared to a biopsychosocial model. In addition to my personal beliefs, there have been clinical studies acknowledging that this model reigns supreme when it comes to the mental health care. The National Library of Medicine did a study on the biopsychosocial model in contemporary psychiatry and concluded, “The biopsychosocial model will continue to remain valid in medicine and more so in psychiatry. Presently, a collaborative approach involving both the psychosocial and biomedical model is needed to enhance the horizon of psychiatric knowledge.” (Tripathi, et. al., 2019).  In conclusion, mental health is so layered and can’t be treated adequately with a biomedical approach. For example, someone who has severe depression can have body aches, lethargy, and join pain, among other ailments. Conversely, often when someone has a significant physical ailment it can lead to a depressive state. Again, significant examples as to why it is imperative to “treat the patient and not the disease”.

Source cited-

Tripathi A, Das A, Kar SK. Biopsychosocial Model in Contemporary Psychiatry: Current Validity and Future Prospects. Indian J Psychol Med. 2019 Nov 11;41(6):582-585. doi: 10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_314_19. PMID: 31772447; PMCID: PMC6875848.

Richardson once said that if the human mind is always busy thinking about every unsatisfactory thing in a pessimistic direction, there is no need for the appearance of an enemy, and you will be defeated first.

Stress is a cognitive and behavioral experience process composed of psychological stressors and psychological stress responses. The word comes from the Latin “stringere”, which means pain. Stress can be divided into distress and eustress. Distress can cause individuals to have an unpleasant, negative and painful experience, which is obstructive. And eustress can make individuals have a pleasant and satisfying experience, which is challenging and can promote personal growth and career development. Psychological stress, as a response to environmental stimuli, is to adapt to the stimuli of the stressor. In response to this stimulus, the body produces a series of responses. The stimuli that cause stress are accompanied by a series of non-specific physiological changes. If a person is completely free from stress, it is tantamount to death. Too high or too low pressure is not good for the individual.

According to Euler (2022), stress can damage physical health in three ways. First, stress can lead to a weakened immune system. A weakened immune system can lead to certain types of cancer, especially age-related cancers such as breast and lung. Stress may also indirectly cause cancer because it affects hormones. In addition, stress increases the production of different types of growth factors, promoting a greater blood supply to feed cancer cells, which in turn speeds up the development of cancerous tumors. In stressful situations, an individual’s behavior is often affected. For example, overeating or insomnia. Therefore, effective ways to relieve stress are necessary. Such as yoga practice, meditation or catharsis.

Combating stress from a psychological perspective, perhaps self-efficacy is one level of understanding the source of stress. Self-efficacy is an individual’s speculation and judgment on whether he or she has the ability to complete a certain behavior. Bandura’s definition of self-efficacy is the degree of confidence that an individual has in his ability to use the skills he possesses to complete a certain work behavior (Bandura et al, 1999). Self-efficacy affects or determines people’s choice of behavior, as well as the persistence and effort of the behavior. It can affect people’s thinking patterns and emotional response patterns, which in turn affect the acquisition of new behaviors and the performance of learned behaviors. People with high self-efficacy have high expectations, deal with situations rationally and are willing to meet the challenges of emergency situations. They are able to control their self-destructive thoughts and can use their wisdom and skills when needed. People with low self-efficacy deal with problems emotionally and are helpless in the face of stress. They are easily disturbed by fear, panic and shyness. Their knowledge and skills are not available when needed.

Reference:

Bandura, A., Freeman, W. H., & Lightsey, R. (1999). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.

Euler (2022). Stress, Cancer and How to Cope. [online] Available at: https://www.cancerdefeated.com/stress-cancer-and-how-to-cope/

Resource dilemma falls into the hands of welfare groups or society. When it comes to the dilemma of resources it comes to the environment and the natural resources that keep us alive. Resources dilemma creates scarcity, and conflict in our environment and in people’s lives. “As environmental problems and concerns grow, social scientists must learn more about individual and small group contributions to ecological degradation. As humans who dwell in societies, we extract, refine, use, and dispose of many natural resources” (Gruman et al., 2016, p. 353). As humans, we can be part of the problem that persists. Humans have the choice of reward or punishment.

Are you intrigued by what I mean by reward or punishment? Let me give you more insight. The reward is a better quality of life, sustainability, health, etc. Punishment does not care about our environment and how it can affect us, our families, and our future generation. The results of not contributing to helping the environment become better will result in resource dilemmas. There is so much to do to help society and its environment by becoming more aware and finding strategies on how to become more inclusive in saving the planet.

Recycling, for instance, is a huge dilemma that is impacting our environment, but it can also debilitate our health. “According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [4], 32.1% of solid waste is recycled, 13.6% is incinerated, and 54.3% ends up in landfills. The majority of damage done to the environment and peripheral ecosystems is directly related to human behavior. With a soaring population and overproduction of material goods, this solid waste will negatively impact our surrounding environment” (Chase et al., 2009, p. 2981). It is crucial to take action because if individuals do not start to realize the impact, we have on our environment it can negatively impact our planet and economy. There are people in our world who believe that recycling is time-consuming or there is a lack of access to recycling containers in their location.

Human recycling has been around all the way to ancient times. Who says that recycling is not important to society and does not bring contribution to people? Recycling is not an issue it is people who are the issue and have a lack of awareness of the benefits it brings not only to our environment but to our economy as a whole. “Recycling is a critical part of the U.S. economy- contributing to jobs, wages and government tax revenue” (Recycling economic information (REI) Report). Envisioning a quality future for our environment does not come without consequences. Decisions that people make are faced with dilemmas, which can be assured to be intervened with intervention strategies that are deemed fit to benefit people, especially those who lack awareness of the importance of recycling. My hope is that people become more self-aware and ambitious to help not just themselves, but others as well. People interact with all kinds of resources in the world ranging from food, and water, all the way to the ground that we step on. Humans are dependable on all kinds of resources so in turn we should be able to adapt and recycle more to build a more positive balanced relationship with the environment.

References

“Chapter 13 Applying Social Psychology to the Environment.” Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Jamie A. Gruman et al., 3rd ed., SAGE, 2016, pp. 351–381.

Chase, Nancy, et al. “‘This Is Public Health: Recycling Counts!’ Description of a Pilot Health Communications Campaign.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 6, no. 12, 2009, pp. 2980–2991., doi:10.3390/ijerph6122980.

“Recycling Economic Information (REI) Report.” EPA, Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov/smm/recycling-economic-information-rei-report.

We all have a role to play as member of society whether you feel that role is big or small.  You can think of this on a global or local stage.  This can be in your community, or you can go beyond and venture out into the world.  In the U.S. we must follow the laws that have been put into place.  If we are of age as citizens we should vote to ensure that we have a say in change.  It is part of our civic duty as well.  We must also have try and have a positive impact on the environment.  This goes further than throwing our trash away in the proper receptacle.  We should think about what we consume and how we effect the overall environment.  This comes down to the word “resource dilemma which are situations in which individuals must choose between self-interest and what is better for the community and environment” (Gruman, 2016).

Resource dilemmas seem to come up everyday whether its gas, water, energy or even deforestation.  What is the cause of the dilemmas?  It could be people don’t have an understanding of how they are effecting the environment.  Others may think that people liv in their own little world and as long as they don’t feel the effects, they may not care.  Some may link these dilemmas to greed.  If you have been watching the news lately, you may be aware that there is a shortage of water in some place of the country.  This can be attributed to the way we are using water and global warming.  Energy and gas prices are soaring through the roof so to speak.  These dilemmas can be addressed using the four-step method as referenced by Gruman (2016).  The steps include choosing a specific behavior that will improve the environment, studying the cause of the problem, create and implement an intervention and evaluate your intervention to make sure it is addressing the intended issue.

In knowing this what can you do to assist in ensuring that the dilemmas that come up are mitigated to here they do not become continuous or bigger problems?  Some idea may be tackling little problems such as recycling.  You could potentially create a recycling program at your school, office, or community.  While trash companies sometimes provide recycling containers not all take advantage of it.  If this is something you want to tackle perhaps you could bring it up to your local government.  An intervention could be that they pay for the trash pickup to include recycling.  This could be evaluated later on to see if more are using this free service.

If we believe that we all have a role to play in this world than we will all realize that what we do can and will have future impacts on our environment.  Our roles can be big or small. They can affect in a local or global way. Recycling affects the environment in two ways as recycled materials can continuously be used to make other products and it takes away from landfills.  Let’s all do our part and limit resource dilemmas.

Reference

Gruman, Jamie, A. et al. Applied Social Psychology. Available from: MBS Direct, (3rd Edition). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US), PP. 352, 361. 2016.

ENVIRONMENTAL BLOG

Resource Dilemma—it is not EGGcellent

What came first, the chicken or the—-. I will stop myself right there. No one cares which one came first, they just want to know why their eggs are so damn expensive. Eggs have always been an amazing “struggle meal” that was full of protein and versatility. Now, the value of eggs is jokingly synonymous with the value of filet mignon, or caviar. If anything over the course of the last three years has taught us anything, it is not to take common household items, including food, for granted. We all remember at the onset of Covid-19 that Clorox wipes and toilet paper were like gold. Honestly, probably more valuable than gold because nobody cared about precious metals during a pandemic, but they did care about staving off that virus and being able to comfortably use their restrooms.

According to the U.S. Inflation Calculator, the cost of eggs in December of 2021 was approximately $1.67 cents compared to December of 2022 which was $4.25 (2022). That is a significant jump and a hit to family’s pocketbooks. CBS News Money watch explains the 60% increase citing the issue as being due to an ongoing avian flu epidemic. Being considered the deadliest outbreak in U.S. history, nearly 58 million birds have been infected with the bird flu. When they become infected, they must be slaughtered, therefore plummeting the number of available eggs. (Thank goodness people aren’t subjected to the same outcome when they have an infection!)

Resource dilemmas are, “situations in which individuals must choose between self-interest and the interests of the community or environment” (Gruman, et. al., 2017). Again, referencing the Covid we found that some individuals knew we were in a resource dilemma and didn’t care, attempting to make a profit off of a detrimental situation. According to NY Times, two brothers went on a road trip buying all the hand sanitizer they could to resell at exorbitant prices. When it was acknowledged by Amazon what these men were doing, the immediately pulled them as sellers, disallowing them to continue to sell their profitable hand sanitizer. The brothers were left with 17,700 bottles of hand sanitizer they didn’t know what to do with (a bit validating, right?). The price gouging was disgusting and preyed on others health to line their pockets. Thankfully, stores quickly began to place limits on how many of a particular item you could buy.

Reverting back to our current egg predicament, I can’t say I relate significantly because we were never huge egg purchasers, but I am impressed at the ingenuity of some others. I went outside one day recently to find chickens just chilling out in their coop in my next-door neighbor’s backyard. Funny sight to see when you weren’t expecting it, but it makes sense. Knowing that the price of items always seems to ebb and flow, I will likely just hold off on my occasional baking until egg prices are more stabilized. While I will always appreciate the convenience of grocery shopping, I also reminiscent about simpler times when bartering was practiced more often. In consideration of an intervention for this resource dilemma, perhaps we could use this system as a method for when we run into unexpected shortages such as these. Currently, when it snows, they plow our shared driveway. When their lawnmower broke, we cut their grass. Maybe we can begin helping one another out for goods. I know not everyone has the luxury or advantage of close neighbors, but we all have attributes that may benefit one another.

With all that being said, no one cares about why which came first, or why the chicken crossed the road…unless the chicken was coming to lay some eggs for their morning omelet.

References

Brooks, K. (2023, January 17). Egg prices have soared 60% in a year. Here’s why. Retrieved from https://www.cbsnews.com/news/chatgpt-chatbot-tiktok-ai-artificial-intelligence/

Egg Prices By Year And Adjusted For Inflation. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.usinflationcalculator.com/inflation/egg-prices-adjusted-for-inflation/

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L.M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems, 3^rd edition. SAGE Publications.

Nicas, Jack. (2020, March 14). He Has 17,700 Bottles of Hand Sanitizer and Nowhere Sell Them. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/14/technology/coronavirus-purell-wipes-amazon-sellers.html

In reality, crime is inevitable. It happens everywhere in the world because no matter where you go, someone is going to want to commit a crime. Why do people commit crimes? It can be a number of different factors contributing to someone’s criminal acts. Some factors include jealousy, revenge, social influences, predisposition to compulsion to commit crimes, and feeling like you are at a disadvantage compared to others (Maryville University, 2023).

So, if people are still going to commit crimes, what can be done to deter them from committing said crimes? The theory of defensible space may be helpful. The theory of defensible space says that how someone sets up their environment (their home and layout) can be an important part of deterring criminals away from their space (Newman, 1976). The idea, as described by Newman (1976), is to design living environments in small communities that is watched over constantly by the residents of the community. Having a small, close knit area allows the residents of the complex to know everyone that lives there and have a closer relationship. This closer relationship makes it easy for people to see when someone or something is there that does not belong.

There many things that the book recommends should be in place in order to have a properly defensive unit. This includes having doors that are large and solid throughout, sturdy frames to hang the doors on, peepholes so that residents can view the other side of the door without opening it, and a variety of locks on the door (Newman, 1976). Locks include deadbolts, chains, sliding locks, and door knob locks. Other security measures discussed include proper window guards made of quality materials, window screens, and even window grills if needed in the area (Newman, 1976).

The recommendations of Newman (1976) mostly align with the recommendations given in the course textbook (Gruman et al, 2016). Research suggests that locks, fences, and other barriers, do not necessarily deter someone from commiting a crime (Gruman et al, 2016). These barriers are seen as more of a challenge than an obstacle to avoid (Gruman et al, 2016). The text suggests that surveillance, also as discussed by Newman (1976), shows better results as far as deterring a criminal away from a house or other residence (Gruman et al, 2016). Why? My best guess is because a criminal can control an obstacle, but they cannot control someone watching them in the act.

What can you do to deter a burglar or criminal from your space? Make noise, let them know you are there and you are watching. Setting up wifi lights or radio in your house can help make your presence known. It is also helpful to have a reliable security system. I am including a link to a fantastic podcast for anyone who wants to learn more about self-defense methods as well as understanding why criminals do what they do and how to deter it. The podcaster is a retired detective and has so much useful information!

https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/killer-bee-true-crime-series/id1616934075

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Maryville University. (2023). Understanding why people commit crimes. Maryville Online. Retrieved February 1, 2023, from https://online.maryville.edu/online-bachelors-degrees/forensic-psychology/resources/why-people-commit-crimes/

Newman, O. (1976). Design guidelines for creating Defensible space. National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Dept. of Justice.

When it comes to Maslow, I believe everyone has seen a picture of a pyramid shape divided into five levels. Even if I don’t put this picture, everyone can think of it immediately. Because this picture is used in many psychology-related articles to prove the correctness of these authors’ views. However, in his book “Motivation and Personality”, Maslow did not use such a diagram on the hierarchy of needs to illustrate his point of view. Due to the wide spread of this picture and the specious interpretation of many authors, many readers have some cognitive deviations in their understanding of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: that is, the needs of each level are considered independent, and the needs of human beings are different. Appearance is in strict order. However, it is not.

Cognitive deviations lead to the fundamental behavior of the final result, which is a wrong direction, that is: not knowing how to use theory to guide behavior. As a result, the practical problem arises: “I know that there are five kinds of human needs, but what is the use?” To correct this cognitive bias and bring the individual’s behavior back on the right track, I think first It is necessary to reinterpret Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory to understand the true hierarchy of needs, motivation, and personality.

The five levels of needs mentioned by Maslow in “Motivation and Personality” exist simultaneously in the human body, and there is no situation in normal people where only one need exists alone. But people’s behavior is not only affected by the level of needs, but also limited by the “activation state” that the person is in at that time; that is, when I am in a hungry state, what affects me is mainly the need to eat, and in a very hungry state, my thoughts and all my attention may be attracted by food, but it does not mean that other needs do not exist, it just means that other needs are relatively weak, while food and physiological needs are in a dominant position. In the same way, when the individual is in another motivating state, such as the state of lack of love, the psychological factors of pursuing love and pursuing the attention of the opposite sex occupy a dominant position in behavior.

Maslow classified the needs of physiology and safety as low-level needs, and the needs of love, self-esteem, and self-realization as high-level needs; because the satisfaction of the former needs is based on the satisfaction of material conditions, and needs to be continuously satisfied to bring people The sense of happiness is diminishing. For example, you are very thirsty, so you choose to drink a drink, and you are very happy after drinking the drink. But drinking two or three cups in a row will gradually reduce the happiness it brings. But in terms of higher needs, the satisfaction of needs is based on certain social relationships (that is, higher needs can only be satisfied in a social environment). In addition, although the continuous satisfaction of higher needs brings happiness, it will also weaken, but the weakened ones will not be so weak. obvious. When one person praises me, I will be very happy, when ten people praise me, I will be very happy, and if ten thousand people praise me, I will be even happier.

Maslow divided the evolution trend of needs in the human body. After the lower-level needs are satisfied, the human body will automatically be taken over by the next higher-level needs. After the physiological needs are basically satisfied, the human body enters a state dominated by a sense of security. After the sense of security is satisfied, the human body is mainly dominated by love and belonging. And so on, and when people achieve self-realization, their behavior will be dominated by a lack of needs and changed to growth needs. That is to say, the individual has spontaneity and independence, and becomes a real, self-realized, mentally healthy person.

In addition, Maslow said in the book that the satisfaction of needs can make people healthy, while the unsatisfied needs and the setbacks in reality, conflicts, tolerance, constraints, and other constraints will make people sick; severe cases of Losing one’s self, becoming a pervert, less serious ones lose one’s self, unable to realize one’s full potential. In my opinion, there are two aspects to consider about how to use the theory of needs to guide behavior. One is that when we know what a truly healthy self-actualizing person looks like, we can move forward. Second, to give an example, when a certain level of needs is met, people will enter a relatively motivated state, and their behavior changes from purposeful to relatively emotive and random. Those who truly understand Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory will understand their own level of needs and psychological environment, and then adjust their behavior in a targeted manner to pursue the satisfaction of the next level of needs.

Reference

Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., & Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the pyramid of needs: Contemporary extensions built upon ancient foundations. Perspectives on psychological science, 5(3), 292-314.