05
Oct 23

Air Balls and Knockout Brawls: An Overdue Psychological Analysis of the Lady Eagles

In the eighth grade, my friend Fantasia practically screamed Kurtis Blow’s “Basketball” for three weeks straight on our way home from school. In case you’ve forgotten, the earworm goes like this: 

Basketball is my favorite sport

I like the way they dribble up and down the court

Just like I’m the King on the microphone so is Dr. J and Moses Malone

I like Slam dunks take me to the hoop

My favorite play is the alley-oop

Basketball was, in fact, not my favorite sport, but all I ever did with Fantasia was play it. If she wasn’t playing it, she was talking and singing about it (guess which one I hated more). My incessant exposure to her obsession supplanted my common sense and before I knew it I was signing up to join the girl’s basketball team. I was taller than 85% of the girls in my grade, including Fantasia, and I am pretty sure that is the only reason Coach Kutz so vehemently dragged me onto the court with a smile of triumph. He was thrilled to label me a shooting guard and throw me to wolves without remotely explaining what a shooting guard was.   

Honestly, I never understood why I joined or stayed with the Lady Eagles for as long as I did. Social exchange theory posits that individuals make decisions based on a rational calculation of the benefits and costs associated with a particular choice, and they aim to maximize their overall rewards while minimizing their losses (Gruman et al., 2016). I can remember negotiating with Fantasia to never sing that song again if I agreed to join the team. Being new to the school, I anticipated the rewards as being able to bond with potential friends outside of school, expanding my friend circle, and gaining some social approval I could cash in during high school since the social hierarchy of this school appeared dominated by all the sports team members. In general, I had been convinced by the coach and other students that my height was advantageous and made me a natural. I thus anticipated recognition, praise, and a sense of accomplishment. And I was wrong. 

Unfortunately, the team had communication and dynamic issues from the start. In fact, the social dimension of the team was so adverse that several fights between our own teammates broke out on the court during games. Sports research literature, such as Weiss et al., (2021), highlights numerous social-cognitive-developmental theories that provide valuable frameworks for understanding the outcomes associated with youth sports participation, including why my teammates fought like cats. We can begin by looking at the motivational climate of Coach Kutz’s team, which describes how the social environment in sports, encompassing practices and competitions, is constructed to define and interpret competence and success (Kim & Cruz, 2016). These motivational climates are often classified as task-involving or ego-involving; task-involving climates focus on effort, improvement, and personal mastery and ego-involving climates emphasize social comparison and performance outcomes. Coach Kutz practiced very authoritarian leadership with a strong emphasis on discipline, structure, and winning, often at the expense of individual player development and a positive team culture. Honestly, he was the John Kreese of basketball. The foreground of his coaching style was control and normative evaluation, which tends to create ego-involving climates (2016). In multiple sports, higher ego-involved peer climates evaluated during the early season are associated with reduced task and team cohesion at the midseason stage among players aged 10 to 17 years (2021). This is exactly what occurred for the Lady Eagles.

During the first set of practices, Coach Kutz made it clear how he would manage us as a team. He frequently compared players to one another and prioritized projected or existing rankings to “motivate” us to be better. This meant girls who’d played basketball for five minutes were being compared to girls who’d played for five years. Coach Kutz claimed to be challenging me to be the best version of myself, but I got the feeling he really just wanted me to be Jessica or Tabitha so he could win whatever bet he was putting on our team’s season average. After the first game, Coach Kutz picked his favorites and stopped caring about the development of his weaker players. His neglect really festered in some of the more competitive girls. During games, the pressurizing atmosphere created the perfect conditions for those emotions to explode into brawls after someone missed a pass, or even accidentally brushed a girl after she’d failed a shot. 

Hanin (1992) explains four main communication styles in sports teams: 1). orientation messages, which involve planning strategy or technique and are typically exchanged before a performance; 2). stimulation messages serve to motivate and energize teammates during a performance; 3). evaluation messages allow the team to reflect on their performance and identify areas for improvement; 4). task-irrelevant messages which are any other forms of communication that do not directly relate to the task at hand. The Lady Eagles often failed as a team because we lacked effective orientation messages with Coach Kutz’s authoritarian and win-at-all-costs coaching style overshadowing strategic discussions. We didn’t have positive stimulation messages other than watching him yell “That’s my girl!” to individuals who scored points or blocked a shot. Sickly enough, his cutting us down only made us want his approval more. Our evaluation messages were reduced to simple peer comparisons that damaged our self-esteem and fostered resentment toward each other, especially amongst the higher-performing players. It’s obvious that Coach Kutz exacerbated conflicts and hindered effective team communication, but aside from dismissing him as a coach, what could have been better?

Had the Lady Eagles been framed as a social and not a severe caste system then Jessica may not have lost a tooth to Fantasia’s fist. Had Coach Kutz created an environment where we could have discussed the conflicts and the impact of comparisons on team cohesion then maybe Megan wouldn’t have whipped the basketball at Samantha’s head. Had he taken the time to explain to me my role as a shooting guard then maybe I wouldn’t have kicked my shoe into the audience. Does any of this sound familiar? In essence, the Lady Eagles were a dysfunctional family and the children were at their brink. Surprisingly, “we’re more than a team, we’re a family” is more than a sports cliche. Russel (1996) states that because families and sports teams have analogous features both can suffer some similar issues of conflict resolution, role clarification, group unity, etc. Therefore, family therapy methods could have remediated our team. An intervention for us would have involved acknowledging our poor team functioning as a consequence of our coach’s favoritism and player comparisons and addressing the emotional burden of the team (1996). 

As you can imagine, I experienced burnout from playing basketball under Coach Kutz’s leadership and I did not sign up for summer basketball camp. For the first few weeks after the season, when Fantasia asked me to play basketball I’d throw her stupid ball onto her house’s roof. Fantasia joined Lady Eagles the following year because she’s a maniac. After my experience, the closest thing I ever did to a school sport was somersault into the library each time high school coaches approached me in the hall. As for Coach Kutz, I like to think he had an intervention of his own.  

Citations

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. SAGE Publications.

Kim, H., & Cruz, A. B. (2016). The influence of coaches’ leadership styles on athletes’ satisfaction and team cohesion: A meta-analytic approach. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 11(6), 900–909. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954116676117

Russell, W. D. (1996). The Utility of Family Therapy in the Field of Sport Psychology. Family Therapy, 23(1), 37. https://ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/utility-family-therapy-field-sport-psychology/docview/1474314654/se-2

Weiss, M. R., Moehnke, H. J., & Kipp, L. E. (2021). A united front: Coach and teammate motivational climate and team cohesion among female adolescent athletes. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 16(4), 875–885. https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541211006905


19
Oct 22

Comparing children’s television – 1990s vs. 2000s

As a nineties kid, there was no greater daily joy than racing home from school, finishing my homework, and watching some of my favorite shows. Different shows depicted different levels of violence. Some of my favorite cartoons were wholesome, like “Doug” or “Rugrats” while other shows were a bit edgier like “Salute your shorts” or “Ren and Stimpy”. To be perfectly honest, there were a lot of shows I simply wasn’t allowed to watch. Even the most prosocial shows about fighting evil and being a positive role model included violence (ex. “Mighty Morphin Power Rangers”).

Thirty years later, things have not changed and are perhaps a bit worse despite mounting evidence that violent tv media can increase aggressive behavior (Gruman et al., 2016). I began to wonder if networks responsible for children’s programming had taken any cues from psychological research. Based on my experience watching children’s shows with my kids, my hypothesis – programming had actually become worse.

To test this, I decided to research the level of aggression in a typical modern-day children’s show compared to a 90s show. I first watched a 20-minute episode of a show called “Gravity Falls” and noted the number of times the characters engaged in aggressive behavior and the types of violence present. This show exhibited 26 acts of violence mostly by children which included smacking, shoving, breaking objects, punching, dismembering, kicking, beheading, burning, strangulation, use of a severed head as a weapon, and murder. Many extreme acts of violence occurred against evil wax statues resulting in their deaths (Hirsch et al., 2012).

I used an episode of “Mighty Morphin’ Power Rangers” for comparison. I chose this show specifically because I expected a great deal of violence. This 20-minute episode included 25 acts of violence, most of which occurred while battling “putties” while using martial arts. Acts of violence included punching, kicking, charging, throwing, fire-blasting, and sword fighting but surprisingly no deaths (Power Rangers Official, 2021). Yet, there were many prosocial themes throughout this episode such as helping others, standing up for positive ideals, never using violence for personal gain, and supporting friendships. Prosocial themes are positive behaviors demonstrated to increase positive behaviors (Gruman et al., 2016).

Despite the similar number of violent acts, the quality of those acts was different. The violence may have differed because the modern-day show was a cartoon while the 90s show was live-action, which somewhat limits the ability to intensify violence. But overall, the modern-day show was exceedingly more gruesome than the 90s show and included few prosocial themes. These findings led me to wonder whether society as a whole is becoming desensitized to violence.

Viewing violent media can increase aggression, decrease empathy for others, and elicit fear in children (American Psychological Association, 2013). Our children have become desensitized to violence on television, meaning the more they are exposed to violence, the less it affects them (Gruman et al., 2016). In addition to media desensitization, seemingly endless accounts of real-life violence are also desensitizing society (Pittaro, 2019). So much so that school shootings only headline in the news for a few days (TED, 2020). Clearly, we cannot merely blame television for desensitization but must broaden our perspective to instead observe the whole of society and the real-life violence influencing ourselves and our children. 

While the jury is still out about which decade of children’s shows is more violent, one thing is clear – tv networks still haven’t taken the psychological research concerning violent children’s shows seriously. Even though psychological research supports non-violent tv programming for children, networks continue to produce violent media. In a world already fraught with terror and sadness, children’s shows should provide an escape for kids and help them to develop prosocial behaviors rather than serve to normalize violence.

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). Violence in the media: Psychologists study potential harmful effects. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/video-games/violence-harmful-effects.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Hirsch, A. (Writer), Wallington, A. (Writer) & Aoshima, J. (Director). (2012, Jun 30). Headhunters (Season 1, Episode 3)[TV series episode]. In A. Hirsch (Executive Producer), Gravity Falls. Disney Television Animation.

Pittaro, M. (2019). Exposure to Media Violence and Emotional Desensitization. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-crime-and-justice-doctor/201905/exposure-media-violence-and-emotional-desensitization.

Power Rangers Official. (2021, August 28). Day of the dumpster [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wTh2Aj3gPqI&list=PLbt09tWqepBShiQ_Kyte8wlqZ5gOexnvj.

TED. (2020, September 30). New normal: How we are becoming desensitized to violence [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MZVekq4N7P0.


23
Feb 22

Blog #4 Team Cohesion

Throughout high school, I participated in Relay for life, a nonprofit, charity organization. I was a part of the Relay for Life committee that’s mission was to raise money to fund cancer research and reach the $50,000 goal. To create a successful all-day and night event, the group needed to plan fundraisers, organize teams, and plan ceremonies. These included the opening, fight back, survivor and caregiver, and luminaria ceremonies.

The group had nearly one-hundred members which consisted of teachers, students, and cancer survivors. As a whole, we were highly united as a social group. We looked forward to our daily interactions and after school get-togethers. However, we were not organized with respect to reaching our performance goals. According to Gruman et al. (2017), we were high on social cohesion and low on task cohesion (p.134). To solve this issue, we split into subgroups that were assigned to completing specific tasks. For example, one subgroup was responsible for raising fundraisers and collecting donations. We combined our individual skills and abilities to create balance in our group.

Each subgroup had a leader that made sure each member was doing their best and fulfilling their assigned task roles. My task role was to create social media campaigns, while another individual worked on collecting data. Although the leader was the one in charge of our group, the members were also involved in making decisions. This is called democratic leadership. This method of leadership is related to higher task cohesion. In turn, task cohesion correlates with team confidence and performance (Gruman et al., 2017, p.136-137).

Although the event was successful, the group experienced some difficulty regarding intrateam norms in the beginning. This ultimately disrupted the cohesion of the group and negatively affected the group’s synergy. During group discussions, several members would interrupt while the leader was speaking, have separate conversations, not maintain eye contact, go on their cellphones, and criticize their ideas. These nonconformities caused our group to experience process losses because we could not effectively and respectively interact with one another to discuss and coordinate events.

This caused us to be behind on schedule. Therefore, it was essential that the leader schedule a meeting to handle the conflict among members and find solutions. The leader communicated her feelings, expectations, and reminded us of our goal. She asked us for our feedback, and we gave suggestions for optimizing communication. In the example provided by Eccles and Tenenbaum, two strategies for optimizing communication among teams are developing a shared language and cross-training (Gruman et al., 2017, p.146). A few days after the meeting, there was a noticeable difference in the way the groups functioned. We were able to collaborate and function effectively, ultimately creating the optimal group experience and achieving our shared goal.

 

Reference

Gruman, J.A., Schneider, F.W., & Coutts, L.A. (2017). Applied Social Psychology:

     Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks, CA:

Sage.


15
Feb 22

Does the Education System in the United States really teach their children?

I remember growing up and being in grade school. I remember the fun times of holiday songs and celebrations before Christmas break or Easter break. Growing up in the area I did, I rarely got to experience different cultures. A culture is defined as “a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors” (Matsumoto & Juang, 2004, pg 10) (Gruman, 487). I do not ever remember learning about Hannukah or Ramadan. I do not ever remember being allowed to discuss what holidays we celebrated; everyone just assumed what was celebrated. Even recently, going back to the same district, none of these things are talked about in school. Think back yourself, depending on where you grew up, do you ever remember learning about holidays other than Christian ones? When I moved districts, it was a whole new experience for me. Although I grew up in an extremely white area, my family did the best they could to open our minds to all different concepts and ideas of what other people may celebrate or how everyone’s lives are different. I started my new job in December, and I remember walking into the classroom, and it was decorated for Hannukah; something I have never experienced. It was in that moment that I realized how important it can be for schools to allow and discuss or even celebrate other holidays. I felt so uneducated compared to the children, having never even had the thought of learning about other holidays than the ones I celebrated. I had this whole other opportunity to learn about another holiday and it was amazing to see some of the children who celebrated getting to share their traditions and how their holiday is different from others. This inclusive behavior allows students to open their minds to other groups of people that may differ from them and let prejudice fade away. Children are wet sponges; they soak in everything around them. If they are exposed to these differences early in life, those differences will no longer be differences; it will be a normal to them having learned about them so early in life.

Many schools in the United States only teach and celebrate Christian holidays. According to the article Teaching Holidays in Public Schools, there are no laws currently that say schools must teach other holidays or refrain them from being able to teach these holidays. One of the reasons that the article states many schools refrain from teaching these is that it can be controversial. However, ensuing the idea that discussing other holidays in a school that maybe no one celebrates those holidays, only further pushes diversity and discrimination of those who celebrate. Everyone knows what Christmas is when you live in America, but does everyone know what Kwanzaa is? Statistics show that of the total American population at least 46% of the country celebrate other holidays than Christian ones. Public school systems are failing to educate on cultural diversity; something that has become increasingly important in recent years. This failure can lead to confusion and mixed emotions and pushing discrimination of those cultures into the minds of the young children who will one day lead this country. The simple idea of learning about another culture’s holiday celebrations opens a whole new set of schemas to young children. If we all had the opportunity to learn a little bit about a different culture’s celebrations, it could expose us all to the different groups of people that live in America. It helps educate the idea of cultural diversity and how every group of people can be so vastly different and yet so similar. I think about all the children who had to participate in our Christmas crafts and never got to share their own. It was in my adult years, that I truly got to see the prejudice and discrimination people face every day, even at such a young age. It is time we start at the roots and take all steps possible to end discrimination and prejudice.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd Edition). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/books/9781506353951

Siegal, Peter. Edutopia. Teaching Holidays in Public Schools. (2016). https://www.edutopia.org/article/teaching-holidays-public-schools-peter-siegel


23
Sep 21

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Have you been in a situation where you experienced an unpleasant event that left you traumatized for the rest of your life? Well, that is considered post-traumatic stress disorder in which an unpleasant event or incident happened that might cause life threatening injuries to a person. Although some are not life-long, many might be for a while and cause a person to fear his life. Symptoms, like nightmares, irritation, anxiety, depression and many more, should be shown before giving a person this diagnosis. An example of PTSD is riding a roller coaster in which I give an example explaining it more in depth below. Some treatments that would help with PTSD are cognitive processing theory and medications. PTSD is a psychological disorder that relates to other mental health disorders that we discussed in class like anxiety and depression.

Post-traumatic stress disorder is a psychological disorder in which an incident or event happened that caused a person to constantly stay afraid or traumatized afterwards. Some reasons that a person might experience post-traumatic stress disorder is either experiencing an unpleasant event or going through something. For example, if someone has a fear of roller coasters and rides it one time or even sees on the news that a roller coaster stops midair for hours this would cause a person’s anxiety levels to increase causing a person to develop PTSD. It would also cause a person to fear riding a rollercoaster ever again. Not only does it cause a person to stress about it, but it might cause a person to have other symptoms. Other symptoms are like not being able to sleep, causing mental health problems, hyper vigilance, depression, nightmares and many more.

This might even cause a person to stress about it while only thinking and talking about remembering the bad experience. Some might experience it for a long time while others might only experience it for a short period of time. There are treatments that a person can go through which would help them with solving the problem. An example is cognitive processing theory in which the process changes the way that a person might think by changing their attitude resulting in a change in their feelings. Another treatment is medications in which stress relievers are given to a person to help calm down their nerves. As well as exposure therapy is a beneficial treatment because it helps with “Repeated confrontation of traumatic memories, often through detailed recounting of the traumatic experience” (3 Jonathan). These are only a few treatments for PTSD. Connecting it to the example of a roller coaster, PTSD is considered as a rollercoaster because of the ups and downs that it causes a person to go through. Consider yourself a psychologist or even a student pursuing psychology, how would you approach a person with PTSD? 

Post-traumatic stress disorder connects to the textbook reading in which it connects to different psychological disorders like anxiety and depression. PTSD is a form of anxiety in which as the levels of PTSD increases, more anxiety is caused. PTSD is considered a psychological disorder and to find treatments for these disorders, “social psychologists who work in this area study factors that might bias the process of identifying the nature of a client’s difficulty. They also study the impact on the client’s welfare of giving a diagnostic label to a client” (Gruman 99). Many disorders can be treated after researchers’ work with patients and finding the reason behind the diagnosis. An issue that is present in most physiological disorders is the labeling effect in which a person’s identity might be influenced by words that describe a person. There are other issues in psychological disorders which are present in the textbook like stereotypes, anchoring, and the confirmation bias (Gruman 124). Even though there are issues related to PTSD, it can be treated through different formats. 

Experiencing a traumatic incident or event that might cause a person to injure themselves is considered as post-traumatic stress disorder. There are many symptoms in which a person goes through to consider themselves having PTSD like constant fear, anxiety, lack of sleep, mental health problems, and many more. After diagnosing someone with PTSD, there are some treatments in which a person can go through to help with their mental disorder like cognitive processing, medications, and exposure therapy. Post-traumatic stress disorder connects to other psychological disorders discussed in the textbook like anxiety and depression. Even though there are treatments for PTSD, I think there should be more treatments and solutions to post-traumatic stress disorder. One question to keep you thinking is, how would you approach a person with PTSD?

Here is a link to another example of PTSD if you are interested.

https://youtu.be/YMC2jt_QVEE 

References:

Bisson, J. (2007, April 12). Post-traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved September 23, 2021, from https://www.bmj.com/content/334/7597/789

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.


16
Sep 21

The affects of short-term temptations in the American Culture: Obesity.

Overeating has been a major problem in America, “an estimated 60% of adults in the United States and Britain are currently overweight or obsess and they are becoming so at an earlier age than ever before (Davis 929). Overeating is caused by the human’s temptation towards food, alcohol, smoking, and many more. Overeating is a form of social traps in which they pleasure people in the short-term but affect them in the long term in a negative way instead. The choice of a person relates to their want for immediate pleasure in the short term, like eating junk food, or by waiting for the reward of the long term and staying healthy. What are some factors that cause people to overeat in their daily lives? Some factors that might cause overeating are like stress, body shame, and social media and the internet. While there are many factors that influence obesity, there are ways in which we can solve this problem.

Overeating is a major loss of control over what a person’s body is craving. There are many factors that cause obesity to happen, and recently the percentages of obesity have been increasing at a younger age as well. One factor is stress which causes many to keep eating without even realizing to express their feelings and their emotions through food. When someone is stressed, a way of coping with it is by grabbing anything they can find and eat it. Also, body shame is a way that people who do not like the way that they look try to deal with it either by cutting out all food or by overeating. Someone might be angry about the way that they look and not want to be very skinny anymore, for example, so they start eating more and their body is not used to it. Over time, continuing to eat large amounts of food will cause the person to become obese without even realizing. One large factor in what causes obesity is social media and the use of the internet. Many children, teenagers, and adults use the internet daily 24/7, causing them to eat while they are sitting on a desk or in bed on the internet. Using the internet distracts a person from realizing what they are eating and continues to let a person overeat without noticing and repeating this overtime will cause a person to become obese.

Obesity connects to social traps in which we learned in class. Social traps are the involvement of a person in choosing to have the short-term pleasure or waiting long term for the gain of something, according to the textbook (Gruman 354). This idea might not relate to everyone because some might overeat and not become obese while others will eat normally and still gain weight. This is frustrating to people that gain from the slightest things like eating past ten o’clock at night, while others might eat at twelve o’clock at night and not gain anything. This really depends on a person’s body and how it reacts to food. Not wanting to wait for the long term, many eat as much as they want but causing them to end up with some problem in their body like high blood pressure, high levels of sugar, obesity, acne, and many more. Others that wait for the long term are benefited with staying fit and not having to deal with any problem in their body. I experienced a short-term situation in which I was stuffed full after dinner on a Sunday afternoon, and I couldn’t have dessert, so I saved it for later. Still being full, I realized that I did not eat my dessert, but I ended up eating it at twelve o’clock at night even though I was full.

There are many ways that obesity can be solved and minimized in the American culture. One way of minimizing obesity is by eating more healthy food instead of processed food. The easiest thing to cook is processed food in which it would be ready in ten minutes or less. Especially in college, many students don’t take their time in cooking a healthy meal but instead find processed food. Junk food is a major factor of obesity and getting rid of it with health options will help a person see a positive outcome. Another way to minimize overeating is by having a time frame for the time of meals and knowing when you ate the last meal and not eating too late. These ways might be able to help with obesity.

In conclusion, overeating has been a major factor in the American culture caused by many factors like stress, anxiety, body shame and internet use. It is important to realize the effects that obesity can have on a person whether they are young or adults. Overeating relates to social traps in which most of the time aim for the short term instead of the long term. While some might argue that it is a human normal phase in which people fall into this trap, in my opinion there should be ways in which we solve obesity. To find ways to solve overeating, we should strive to find better replacements that will have an increase in human health and weight.

References: Davis, C., Levitan, R. D., Muglia, P., Bewell, C., & Kennedy, J. L. (2004). Decision-Making Deficits and Overeating: A Risk Model for Obesity. Obesity Research, 12(6), 929–935. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2004.113

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.


14
Sep 21

Littering to Prevent Littering

I’m lucky enough to live in a beach community and, early each morning, I walk my dog along the beach before work. Although there are trash cans placed every 20 to 30 feet along the beach, there is always lots of litter – especially on Sunday and Monday mornings. On my walks, I watch as the maintenance crew works diligently each day, picking up all the litter from the day before. We’ve gotten to know each other quite well over the years and they tell me that they do this early in the morning to ensure that the beach is nice and clean before beachgoers come out for the day. I feel sorry for them that the task seems never-ending and that their beautiful work is always so unappreciated and gets messed up each day. I have often wondered what could be done to cause people to use the trash cans more and litter less. Who knew that the answer might be for the maintenance crew to not be quite so diligent in their litter collecting!

This week we learned that our individual choices and actions can have a huge impact on the physical environment and that, as individuals, we are often faced with social dilemmas that we have to make important choices about…even when we don’t realize how important our choices are (Gruman, Schneider & Coutts, 2017, p.354). I believe that littering is one of these social dilemmas. The short-term benefit to the litterer is immediate; they no longer have to carry the piece of trash around. The long-term cost to the environment is less tangible to the individual in the moment, less salient, making it relatively easy to choose to litter. However, there are long-term costs: when people leave litter on the beach or in the beach parking lot there is a high likelihood that the litter will end up in the ocean. Here it can affect dolphins, seals, and other marine life through entangling and trapping them or through them ingesting it. Litter in the ocean is also harmful to the environment. For instance, plastic trash is light and so floats on the surface of the ocean stopping the sunlight from getting into the ocean. Plastic also traps the sunlight which makes the surface of the ocean warmer. Both things will affect ocean ecosystems and our climate.

So, the question becomes; how to make non-littering more salient in the moment? Social norms are one of the big drivers of our behavior, telling us which behaviors are/aren’t acceptable (Gruman, Schneider & Coutts, 2017, p.81). As humans we are very motivated to be liked and approved of by others, we also use others’ behaviors to inform us of how we should behave in a situation. Focus Theory of Normative Conduct suggests that, in situations where several social norms are available at the same time, our behavior will most likely be influenced by the focal norm; the one which is most salient (Stok & de Ridder, 2019). It would follow, then, that, if the beach was strewn with litter, individuals would feel it acceptable to join in with this behavior. It would also make sense that, if the beach was kept pristine and did not have a single piece of litter on it, individuals would copy this behavior and not drop litter. Therefore, the work the maintenance crew does on the beach here each morning is valid, useful, and necessary.

Interestingly, in their studies, Reno, Cialdini, and Kallgren (1993) found that whilst a completely clear, litter-free area does lead to less littering, it is not as effective as when a social norm is made focal, drawing people’s attention to a non-littering norm. Their studies suggest that adopting one of the following behaviors would make beachgoers much less likely to litter. The first would be for the maintenance crew to leave a little litter on the beach during their early morning clean-up and only pick up that litter once beachgoers had arrived and could see them doing it. This is an injunctive norm; highlighting to beachgoers that littering is wrong and making this norm very salient in their minds. The second would be to tidy up the beach beautifully during their early morning clean-up and then, once beachgoers had arrived for the day, have someone deliberately drop a piece of trash somewhere prominent. This is a descriptive norm; it would draw attention to the fact that this action was unusual in this tidy environment, reminding people that most people don’t drop litter on the beach.

I found this really interesting and would love to help the maintenance crew out by suggesting they try one of these strategies. However, I can only imagine the looks of horror on their faces at the thought of not doing the best clean-up job possible, or – even worse – deliberately contributing to the littering problem. I’d also be happy to test it myself by going back down to the beach as beachgoers arrive and dropping a piece of trash on the crew’s beautiful sand. I think it would be a good intervention strategy but the personal cost to me – potentially losing my friendship with the crew – is too high. And so we come full circle; my individual choices and actions could potentially have a positive impact on the physical environment and yet every day I choose not to act because my personal reward for not acting is greater than my personal reward for acting.

References:

Gruman, J.A.,Schneider, F.W., & Coutts, L.A. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Reno, R.R, Cialdini, R.B, & Kallgren, C.A. (1993). The transsituational influence of social norms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 110, 908.

Stok, F. M., & de Ridder, D. T. D. (2019). Chapter 7: The Focus Theory of Normative Conduct. In K. Sassenberg, & M. Vliek (Ed.). Social psychology in action: Evidence-based interventions from theory to practice (p. 96). essay, Springer.


25
Feb 21

Contact Theory Hypothesis

Prejudice and discrimination are prevalent in society and are in fact weaved into the fabric of our culture. Presuming that someone behaves in a certain or is a certain way could lead to unfavorable behaviors towards that individual. Holding and harboring negative attitudes toward an individual without logically understanding the thought process behind this presumption will influence how one will approach that individual.

Indeed, thoughts turn into actions when left unchecked. A primary example of prejudice turned into discrimination is age discrimination. There’s this negative connotation to older age groups, such that they are considered incompetent or weak. While it’s true that it’s in our human nature to experience weakness as we grow older, it’s not justifiable to have a negative attitude towards older age groups. Evidently, prejudice leads to ageism in the workplace and more broadly in the social and wellness aspects of the individual’s life.

Several medical complaints that are made by old individuals are often overlooked and brushed off as “hypochondria” or “hallucinations”. This behavior leads to repercussions (medical liability, worsened sickness, lack of trust). Many older people are presumed to be less functional and able in the workplace, and as a result, are denied job offers and promotions and are excluded in the workplace.

What many of us fail to understand is that prejudice leads to discrimination, and discrimination, in and of itself, generates a reaction from the person being discriminated against that aligns with the initial prejudice. There goes the destructive cycle of prejudice reinforced and strengthened by behavior invoked by discrimination. What needs to happen is to cut off this destructive cycle. Adressing the issue head on eliminates the negative attitudes and conformational behavior.

One strategy for reducing prejudice and discrimination was proposed by social psychologist Gordon Allport in 1954. To put it simply, if individuals of different backgrounds with varying mindsets and beliefs were exposed to each other in a continuous and natural setting, all the negative beliefs and attitudes are likely to decrease, Allport’s “contact hypothesis” states that “equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals” and “sanctioned by institutional supports” should reduce intergroup tensions and promote perceptions of common interests and common humanity.

 

Reference:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. ProQuest eBook Central. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral.proquest.com.


08
Feb 21

An Evaluation of Defensible Space

When I was 16 years old, I began my journey into the working world. My first job was at a well-known 24/7 convenience store and gas station on the East Coast. The location of the store was extremely busy during the day and rarely populated at night. I went through multiple hours of training, which included robbery training. One night, while I was brewing fresh coffee, a man approached me. He began small talk with me, asking me mundane questions about how my day was going. He then began to ask me questions about the store and its layout. His line of questioning raised a red flag, and I began to feel more and more uncomfortable as time progressed. After I was vague with my responses, he began asking me about the security of the store. Within seconds of asking his first security question, the music playing throughout the building cut off and an announcement came over the loudspeaker of the store. On the other end of the loudspeaker was a member of the corporate security team. She explained to the man that security is watching the store 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and, if he was done conducting his business, he was to leave the store. The man left his cup of coffee that he poured on the countertop and walked out of the door immediately. Directly after the end of the audio transmission, a screen capture of his face was taken and sent to my manager.

This story had me thinking about what makes a store more vulnerable to robbery than another? This involves the theory of defensible space (Gruman, 2016). This theory states that instances of crime will lessen and individuals within those spaces will feel more protected if specific elements of building layout and interior designs are implemented (Gruman, 2016). A model called the Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) explains that, by changing aspects of a poor design layout of a business, the susceptibility of a business to robbery can be significantly diminished (Casteel, 2000). Access control, activity support, natural surveillance, and territoriality are the features of the CPTED model (Casteel, 2000). I have used that model to investigate the building layout and interior design of my store and to evaluate how susceptible my store was for a robbery.

I believe that the access control (flow of customer traffic in relation to outside doors of the building and their locations) in my store was of good quality (Casteel, 2000). In customer view, there were only two doors on either side of the building that the customer can come in or out of and a security door in the back of the building that cannot be opened from the outside and can only be opened inside with a code to keep the alarm from sounding off. The doors were positioned in a way that the customer can come in one door, conduct their business, and exit from the door on the other side and the customer can be easily seen from many angles.

The activity support (steps that are taken to ensure that a store is populated with happy customers) of the store was also positive (Casteel, 2000). While we were not busy at night, we were very busy during the day and there were many regular customers who would visit multiple times a day and were loyal to our store. As employees, we would build that rapport with our customers and the police force in our area. The more police you have visiting your establishment, the less criminals you have coming around.

The natural surveillance (cash register location, illumination inside the building, and transparency of the store from the outside) had some issues (Casteel, 2000). Our cash registers were located on either side of the doors to and from the building. The cash registers should have been placed further away from the entrances and exits of the building so that the surveillance cameras would have a better chance of capturing an image of a suspected criminal. That would also cause the perpetrator to potentially be seen by other customers or workers within the building before they could reach the register. The illumination within the building and the ability to see inside of the store from the outside were acceptable due to bright lights and large windows that make up the walls of the building.

Finally, the territoriality (the separation between customer and employee, where the store is sited and how populated that area is at any given time, and marketing strategies in the area surrounding the store) had its good points and its bad points (Casteel, 2000). The store is in a very populated area off a major highway. The area is not as populated at 3:00am, but there are a few regular customers who frequent the store at nighttime. There are billboards and bright signage advertising the store both on and off the highway, so it is well known that the store exists to the public. The separation between customer and employee could be adjusted. The cash registers are located at one end of the building and were manned by one or two employees. The rest of the workers are at the other end of the building to make food orders. I think that the cash register area and the food preparation area should be connected to better ensure employee security (safety in numbers!).

Ultimately, that man never came back into the store and we never had any issues with him. However, that was not the last I heard of him. The police came into my store a few weeks later, holding a printed out criminal line up. The officer asked me if I could identify the man who entered my store that day and was asking me questions. I was able to positively identify him for the officer, so he thanked me and left. A few days after that, I read in the newspaper that he had robbed another convenience store down the street from mine. Thanks to the creation of a defensible space (and the vigilance of corporate security) I did not have to experience such a terrifying ordeal.

References

Casteel, C., & Peek-Asa, C. (2000, April 28). Effectiveness of crime prevention through environmental Design (CPTED) in Reducing robberies. Retrieved February 08, 2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S074937970000146X

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. ProQuest Ebook Central https://ebookcentral.proquest.com


24
Sep 20

Growing Greener

In recent weeks we have seen over 3 million acres of land burned on the west coast of the United States and for the second time in modern history, we have 5 tropical storms formed in the Atlantic. Some may say that this is just chance, but for many who are watching the environment, they can’t help but believe that these all too often occurrences are due to human impact on the environment. As we watch the world change before us, in more ways than one, there are those who are asking the question, “Can we make changes that can have a lasting impact?” Nona Yehia would say it is possible.

We know throughout history that wars have been fought over land and resources. Our environment is changing on a daily basis and we are finding a world that seems to be less hospitable to its inhabitants due to the lack of behavior change in order to help our planet be a healthier place. We continue to cut forests, rely on fossil fuels and use pesticides that end up as run off in our lakes and ponds and we are seeing the results of our poor behavior. The consequences are only going to get worse. Resources will become scarcer, temperatures will continue to climb and clean water will be harder to find unless we make changes. This is a Resource Dilemma. We consciously make the choice to continue to water our lawns and use up precious resources like they will always be there. (Gruman et al., 2017)

As we look to business and government to make a change in the world to value the planet over the all mighty dollar we are beginning to see leaders rise up from the crowd in a hope to make an impact in the world and their environment. A recent news article I saw out of Wyoming in the Chariton Newspaper online, told the story of an architect turned entrepreneur, Nona Yehia, who developed a business called Vertical Roots. The basic premise of the business was that it took a10th of an acre building and grows 10 acres of food in it. The building not only supplies readily available food to local residents and restaurants year round, it does it with no pesticides, zero water consumption and the owner even built the business around hiring those who are underserved in the community. This is a Social Dilemma or taking a space or building that is of little to no use for the good of mankind and turning it into something that is. (Gruman et al., 2017)

Vertical Harvest Farms in Wyoming has 42 employees. 25 of these employees are disabled in some way however, by working with Vertical Harvest Farms they are able to learn new skills and abilities.  They no longer have a job but a career. (Vertical Harvest Farms, n.d.)  Through her efforts she is changing her behavior and her communities’ behavior, which in turn, gives this out of the way place in Wyoming a sustainable resource that is helping the community thrive. This one building provides local foods for over 80 different businesses in 3 states. These businesses would normally not have this kind of access due to the location of the rural cities and towns. (Vertical Harvest Farms, n.d.)
It is thinking like that of Nona Yehia and her Co-Founders that will make the biggest impact to regain the ground we have lost in fighting the war on saving our environment.  Vertical Harvest Farms is opening another facility in Maine in 2022 and gives information on how to start a Vertical Harvest facility on their website, verticalharvestfarms.com. (Vertical Harvest Farms, n.d.). To see how Vertical Harvest started and their first 15 months, check out the video Hearts of Glass. https://www.heartsofglassfilm.com/
The Chariton Newspapers. (2020, September 13). How a Wyoming farmer grows 10 acres of      food on a tenth of an acre.

https://www.charitonleader.com/news/national/video_191f3d0c-2a4f-5830-9b5b-                        0152241921e8.html

 Vertical Harvest Farms. (n.d.). Fact sheet.

http://vertharvest.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/VerticalHarvestFactSheet.pdf

Gruman, J. A.,  Schneider, F. W. , &. Coutts, L.M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems 3rd edition. SAGE Publications.


24
Sep 20

Mental Health, Are We Treating the Whole?

It is no secret that mental health conditions are on the rise, impacting 1 in 5 adults according to the American Psychiatric Association. Since COVID 19 the situation has gotten worse. According to a report published in August 2020 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), “U.S. adults reported considerably elevated adverse mental health conditions associated with COVID-19. Younger adults, racial/ethnic minorities, essential workers, and unpaid adult caregivers reported having experienced disproportionately worse mental health outcomes, increased substance use, and elevated suicidal ideation.” But what can we do to help those dealing with these issues?

 

In the past, when it came to mental health conditions, medical professionals were solely focused on understanding and treating the biological functions thought to be causing the illness. This approach called the biomedical model approach, viewed mental health conditions as being diseases of the brain, and sought to treat them solely by the use of medications. However, as suggested in Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems this might not necessarily be the best approach.

 

It is believed that mental health conditions are affected by more than just biological factors. Psychological traits and social circumstances are also contributing factors and thus why the biopsychosocial model approach is now often implemented by medical professionals today. The biopsychosocial model approach, as its name suggests, believes that the best way to determine and treat illness is by a combination of not only biological factors but also psychological and social factors as well. When addressing issues of mental health, we need to look at the whole picture and treat not only the biochemical imbalances in the brain but also the psychological traits and social circumstances contributing to the mental health condition(s). Some of those psychological and social influences can include, childhood psychological trauma such as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse, suffering a loss at a young age such as the loss of a parent or sibling, gender identity, social class, and race and ethnicity.

 

Rather than taking a biomedical model approach that focuses solely on biological functioning to explain and treat an illness, we should take a biopsychosocial model approach a treat the whole person.

 

References

Mental Health 2020: A Presidential Initiative for Mental Health. (2019). Retrieved September 24, 2020, from https://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Psychiatrists/Advocacy/Federal/Mental-Health-2020-A-Presidential-Initiative-for-Mental-Health.pdf

Mental Health, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation During the COVID-19 Pandemic – United States, June 24–30, 2020. (2020, August 13). Retrieved September 24, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6932a1.htm

BJ, D. (2013). The biomedical model of mental disorder: A critical analysis of its validity, utility, and effects on psychotherapy research. Retrieved September 24, 2020, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23664634/

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE.

Bhandari, S. (2020, June 30). Causes of Mental Illness. Retrieved September 24, 2020, from https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/mental-health-causes-mental-illness

Mechanic, D., & McAlpine, D. (2002, April 30). The Influence of Social Factors on Mental Health. Retrieved September 24, 2020, from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0470846410.ch17


20
Nov 19

Participatory Action Research: Researchers Working With Communities to Bring About Social Change

Participatory Action Research (PAR) involves researchers who apply their skills and training to a particular issue that they personally care about; they are invested in the outcome of the research and their aim is to contribute to creating social change.  PAR focuses on research that enables social action. Mary Brydon–Miller (1997) describes Participatory Action Research as a blend of basic science and applied science—she explains that psychologists can use this approach to social science to contribute to the general field of knowledge in a certain realm while also helping to support some sort of positive social change. This approach, which opponents argue is an inappropriate mix of one’s politics and psychology, is very different from the traditional scientific approach to studying issues using a more detached and objective research design (Brydon–Miller, 1997).
At the root of PAR is the goal of providing a framework where positive social change can come about through a combination of efforts; communities working in tandem with psychologists to share their knowledge, vision, and values can effectively facilitate social change in countless areas, from criminal justice to environmental sustainability to overpopulation to poverty. Knowledge is never fixed, there is always room for more knowledge to be assimilated into our existing schemas and frameworks of how the physical world and social processes within it work.
Educator and author Paulo Freire felt very strongly that community members need to be an integral part of the social change process—he felt that the “researcher and researched” should be “equal and active participants” in any process meant to result in social change that would affect that community (Brydon–Miller, 1997, p. 659). By including community members, researchers can learn more about the real issues that communities are facing, and by employing a more engaged and interpretive subjective perspective, the team members can act and reflect repeatedly until the framework for the desired future changes is laid.
The Participatory Action Research process begins with mutual trust between the researcher and the other participants in the community where change is needed. One example of how participatory action researchers can apply their knowledge and skills to helping members of the community is seen in the efforts of Darius Tandon and his colleagues in Chicago—there they work with local African–American leaders to learn more about how to strengthen leadership and bring about positive change in minority communities (Brydon–Miller, 1997, p. 663). The leaders of the communities are active participants in the process, helping to choose topics to explore, interviewing others, analyzing data, and also deciding what action needs to be taken going forward based on research findings.
Participatory Action Research requires respecting and exploring a new paradigm in the world of social science— one which embraces a collaborative approach between researchers and community members who actively work together to bring about social change. This type of social research can exist along with traditional scientific methodology and add a new dimension of depth to critical inquiry, where the ultimate goal is to create new knowledge while also helping to bring about social change.

                                                          References
Brydon-Miller, M. (1997). Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 53(4). 657-666.


09
Nov 19

Safety in numbers? Think again. The Bystander Effect: a look at the psychology of helping behavior

Which situation gives you a better chance of survival? Having a heart attack in a building with only one person in the next room or having a heart attack in the middle of Central park on a crowded hot summer day in New York City? I’ll take the building with one person please! I think that many of us falsely assume that there is safety in numbers—the more people, the more help we would receive if we had an emergency, right? Maybe not. According to much research that has been done on the psychology of helping by Latane & Nida (1981), Beaman, Barnes, Klentz, & McQuirk (1978), and others, our chances of receiving help in an emergency situation decline as the amount of bystanders increases. Knowing the social psychological processes at work that play a large role in determining whether or not a person will help in an emergency situation can make the difference when deciding between helping or not helping someone who is in need.
The bystander effect is a social phenomenon that explains how and why a person is more likely to be helped in an emergency situation in the presence of less people (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2017). This may sound counterintuitive as, statistically speaking, we may think that more people equals more people who can actually help. However, there are three social psychological processes that work against the assumption that more people means more help: the audience inhibition, social influence, and diffusion of responsibility (Latane & Nida, 1981, p. 309).
Whether we help others or not in an emergency situation has a lot to do with how we interpret emergency situations, as well as how many other bystanders are present (Beaman, Barnes, Klentz, & Mcquirk, 1978). Audience inhibition occurs when people do not take action to help others in an emergency situation because they are afraid of being embarrassed or criticized by others for failing to act appropriately—for example, acting like it is an emergency when in fact it is not, or by giving a person the wrong type of care or treatment. Another hindering factor to helping behavior is being uncertain if an emergency really exists at all. The more ambiguous the situation is to the bystander, the more likely help will not occur. Social influence plays a large role in the inhibition of helping behavior—bystanders often look to others for informational cues that help them interpret the situation; if others appear not to be alarmed, then others may assume there is nothing to be alarmed about and that no help is needed, therefore no help is offered.
According to the researchers Latane and Darley (1981), it is really surprising that anyone in a crowd ever helps anybody else in an emergency situation at all, especially when when one considers that often there are many more costs incurred by helping others than direct benefits to one’s self. Diffusion of responsibility describes another reason why people in need of help in an emergency situation may not receive help if there is a group of bystanders instead of just one individual bystander—humans often shift responsibility to others so that are not faced with assuming individual responsibility for helping (Gruman et al., 2017). There may be more costs to helping than there are benefits. The more people that are present, the more people may feel that others can just help instead of themselves—in this way, we can now see why it may be safer to have an emergency with one person present. That lone person is much more likely to not be able to pretend they didn’t notice the event or to assume others will help.
Knowing why we act in particular ways can help us become more aware of the social psychological processes at work, especially when it comes to helping behavior. If we understand what may influence us to think, feel, or behave in certain ways towards a situation, then we may be better equipped to handle situations more effectively. In emergency situations, knowledge of how we may be influenced by others to help or not help could bring about positive change related to how we perceive situations and whether we will in fact help others. It appears as though education is the key; through intervention strategies of educating the public about social inhibition, social psychology and applied social psychology can work together to help communities function better. By educating people about the psychology of helping, we can become more aware and make more informed decisions which may lead us to act in ways that keep each other safer and more protected by their fellow human being.

 

References

Beaman, A. L., Barnes, P. J., Klentz, B., & McQuirk, B. (1978). Increasing Helping Rates Through Information Dissemination: Teaching Pays. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4(3), 406–411. doi: 10.1177/014616727800400309

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2017). Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. ISBN 9781483369730

Latané, B., & Nida, S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological Bulletin, 89(2), 308-324. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.2.308


01
Nov 19

Improving Academic Self–Concept: Opening the Door to a Brighter Future

The mind is a powerful thing…I was never a good student back in high school. No, let me rephrase that—I never thought I had what it took to be a good student, so at some point I just stopped trying, and then I really became not a good student. I never had much academic success, so I developed a pretty bad academic self–concept of myself as a result. Today, I know I could have been a good student if many things had been different—namely, my attitude.
Being a “good student” isn’t simply being intelligent. Being a good student involves a mindset which includes having a positive attitude towards learning, with beliefs that learning is important, that you have the ability to do everything it will take to achieve your academic goals, and that the outcome is worth it and within your control. Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior helps explain how attitudes relate to behavior, which can predict intention, which then predicts behavior (Gruman, Schneider, and Coutts, 2017). This constant loop of a relationship can be a powerfully positive one or a powerfully destructive one.
Academic self–concept has been shown to be strongly correlated with academic success, and is influenced by many factors. Complicating this whole process are many intervening variables as well, which can either work for or against someone’s academic self–concept. Subjective norms can be powerful influences on beliefs, intentions, behavior, and motivation—what others think can matter a great deal. Often, we meet the level of success that others around us expect of us, and a supportive environment can work wonders for behavioral change. Additionally, intention and motivation can be diminished if one perceives that they have a low level of behavioral control over the outcome—in this way, self–fulfilling prophecies about one’s own abilities to achieve success take root.
The process of achieving a positive academic self–concept includes not only attitudes, perceptions, motivation, and behavior, it also includes good experiences that will reinforce one’s evolving overall perceptions, intentions, and behavior. Negative experiences, resulting from actions such as repeatedly failing classes due to one’s behavior, such as cutting school or not studying, can have a strong negative impact on one’s academic self–concept. On the other hand, the skill development affect explains how positive experiences, such as receiving positive feedback from professors or getting a good grade on a midterm you studied hard for, can motivate us even more to continue this positive trajectory of our lives (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 224).
There are great rewards to positive behavioral changes. A positive academic self–concept can come anytime in life, people have it within their grasp to turn it around. For me, it has been developed and positively reinforced over the last four years at Penn State’s World Campus. Every new theory I learned or good grade I got after working hard on a paper was a building block for an improved academic self–concept. In addition, knowing that other students have the same motivation to perform well academically, despite many challenges, and receiving positive support from teachers and administrators, contributes to high positive outcome expectations (e.g. completing a difficult task, graduating) which then predict academic attitudes and academic performance (Gruman et al., 2017). I believe change can happen as soon as you open your mind to change, but it’s not that easy—as Ajzen’s theory explains, it takes a lot of planning as well.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2017). Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. ISBN 9781483369730


20
Oct 19

Applied social psychology in the criminal justice system: improving eyewitness identification accuracy in police lineups

            

                  

There are many steps and factors in a criminal case that all come together to ultimately produce a verdict of guilt of innocence for the accused. There are several stakeholders in a criminal trial, though the defendant probably has the most at stake, as a verdict can mean the difference between freedom and prison time, which can have lasting negative effects for a lifetime. Social psychology principles and research findings can be effectively applied to the criminal justice system, specifically to help improve how law enforcement officers conduct criminal investigations. A crucial part of the investigation that police strive to achieve is an eyewitness identification of a suspect; however, eyewitness bias and poor procedural steps can taint this process, resulting in false eyewitness identifications of suspects. By studying what procedures influence witness error and bias, eyewitness accuracy can be improved, which can lead to less false positive identifications.
In a criminal case, the prosecutor works closely with law enforcement to build their case; they try to prove the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, and the defense does all that it can to plant reasonable doubt into the minds of the jury. The case begins after a crime has been committed, and the steps that take place from there can all impact the final verdict of the accused. One of the most important pieces of evidence for the prosecution’s case against the defendant is a positive eyewitness identification, often done in police lineups. Unfortunately, false positive identifications do happen, and the repercussions of these errors can be devastating to those who are wrongfully identified. In 2016, the Innocence Project reported that of the 325 cases in which convicts have been exonerated by DNA evidence, 72% of those cases involved false positive eyewitness identifications; it is plain to see how much rests on the accurate identification of suspects by witnesses (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2017).
Many factors can affect the accuracy of a eyewitness’s identification, such as stress of witness at the time of witnessing the crime, the involvement of weapons in the crime, the timing of the identification of a suspect after the crime occurred, and the ability to see the suspect’s entire face at the time of the crime. Another factor that affect eyewitness accuracy is the “cross–race effect”, which describes the ability to recognize faces of people of one’s own race better than the faces of other races (Gruman et al., p. 304).
In addition to these factors, lineup procedures can have an enormous impact on eyewitness identification. The book of lineup guidelines which is widely used by law enforcement agencies in America, Eyewitness Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement, outlines specific procedures that, if followed, would greatly reduce witness identification errors. The guidebook recommends that all lineups should be sequential lineups, where individuals are shown to the eyewitness one a time, versus a simultaneous lineup, which is what we commonly see in movies—where the suspects are lined up all together in a row in one room. Of confronted with all suspects at once, the eyewitness may feel pressure to choose one, even in the face of uncertainty. Foils, or people whom the police know are innocent, should also be used—this reduces the risk of a false identification by the eyewitness. Eyewitnesses may be swayed by the input of others after they identify someone in a lineup, so their confidence level in their decision should be recorded immediately by law enforcement. Police officers sometimes knowingly bias eyewitnesses so that they may have a positively identified suspect; by putting a suspect in the room who is the only individual that matches the eyewitness’s physical description of the suspect, the chances of a positive identification are greatly increased.
Knowledge gained through social psychology research can be applied to the investigative processes in the criminal justice system in many ways. False eyewitness identifications of suspects can result in devastating outcomes, and also leaves the real criminals at large. Errors in lineups can be greatly reduced by following guidelines and procedures that minimize bias and maximize eyewitness accuracy.

 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology:
Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. ISBN 9781483369730


10
Oct 19

Remembering the Development of the Titans

I was an athlete for all of my elementary and high school years of school. During that time, I played with various coaches and teammates. Although the members were always changing, one thing that our coaches always would have us do was watch the movie Remember The Titans by Boaz Yakin. As I think back to that film, I remember times when I believed I would never have team cohesion with a new group of individuals. When I would go home and complain about a teammate or coach, my dad would remind me about Remember the Titans as an example of the development of groups and team cohesion.

Cohesion is defined as “a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs” (Coutts, Gruman, & Schneider, 2017). At the beginning of the film two high schools are integrated during a time of high racial tension. Since the schools are integrated, the football team has an African American head coach (Denzel Washington) and a Caucasian coach (Will Patton). During the first interactions between the newly integrated team members, there was a lack of team cohesion. The players make it known to the team that they do not want to play with the members of the opposite race. With a lack of team cohesion, the coaches were aware that they would struggle to succeed because “research evidence that teams high in cohesion perform better than do teams low in cohesion” (Coutts & et al., 2017). To increase team cohesion, Washington and Patton used goal setting, team building activities, and through modeling leadership. Through the use of these various interventions, the team was able to come together through the process of group development.

Tuckman (1965), stages of development theory, describes a process of four steps forming, storming, norming, and performing. In the film, the integrated members of the team meet in the gymnasium and are somewhat reserved at first in the presence of their new coaches. Washington explains that the team will all be heading to a training camp as a way to help increase team cohesion. On the way to camp, Washington separates two groups and partners up to each team member with a member of the opposite race. He promotes team building at this time by having them sit together, room together, and they are required to learn more about their partner. The storming stage begins when there are conflicts within the team. The storming stage is most clearly noted when the two head captains, one African American, and one Caucasian player, have a confrontation regarding leadership skills and not looking out for the team as a whole. Through this conflict, the players learned to understand one another and were able to become better leaders for the team.

 

Following various conflicts between members of the team, the norming stage emerges. The norming stage begins as the team works together to fight against racism. The teammates start to trust one another and have come to an understanding of their membership in the group. They build bonds and communicate effectively and work together through warmups and, specifically, a team dance. Moving on to the last stage of Tuckman’s (1965) theory, the performing stage is noted when the team begins to work together efficiently and succeed in their goal of winning. By the end of the film, the football players are best friends and stand up against racism in their community. Through the stages of development and the help of the supportive coaches, this team was able to work together to increase cohesion. With the bonds they built, they were able to defy the odds and achieve the unachievable.

Reference:

Coutts, L. M., Gruman, J. A., & Schneider, F. W. (2017). Applied social psychology understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63 (6). 384–399. doi:10.1037/h0022100


03
Oct 19

Intergroup Relations On The Big Screen

Remember that movie Grease?  Yes, the one from 41 years ago when John Travolta was young and thin?  The one that cast physically–developed 30-year-olds to play seniors in high school?  The one that glamorized unprotected sex and juvenile delinquency?  Yeah, that one!  Okay, I LOVE that movie!  It is actually one of my favorites, and has been required movie–watching for all of my kids.  I don’t only love it because I was a scrawny 8–year–old when I saw it and walked out of the theatre wishing I was Olivia Newton John and also married to John Travolta.  It is not only because the singing and dancing were amazing, or that they never did homework, or that they all lived in sunny California and it seemed like they had no parents—in fact, I don’t think any parents were ever seen once in that film.  I think the mass appeal of that movie comes down to the intrigue and complexity of intergroup relations.  

Sandy (played by Olivia Newton John) was a young, naive “good girl”, an Australian transplant who had to suddenly switch to a California high school where she knew only one friend.  However, before school started, she managed to have a summer fling and fall in love with the popular and charismatic leader (played by John Travolta) of the social group (a gang, really) called the “T–Birds”—a group of fairly harmless, somewhat misogynous young derelicts that break the rules and don’t seem to consider their futures beyond high school.  Danny also fell in love, but he knows that Sandy would never be accepted by his group because she was a member of the “nerdy” group, so he just tries his best to forget about her.  In contrast to their rival gang group, the out–group called the “Scorpions”, the T-Birds seem mild in comparison—the T-Birds are obviously meant to be the desirable in-group of the movie, and the group that many other students wished they were a part of.  Girls fawn over them, social outcasts want to be friends with them, and even the teachers act favorably toward them and grant them special privileges.  This shows the power that in-groups can have.

According to the Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory (1981), people are influenced by different aspects of themselves at various times, which can affect their behavior (Penn State, 2019).  One’s personal identity is comprised of one’s conscience, or moral beliefs, their experiences, and one’s objective individual characteristics, such as sex or age.  One’s social identity is very different, however—it is comprised of how one feels and believes about who they are in a given situation, and this is highly influenced by one’s group membership.

While personal identity and social identity overlap one another, Tajfel outlined three components of social identity: feeling a sense of belonging to a group, feeling that the membership in that group is important, and feeling committed to that group (Penn State, 2019).  The social identity theory posits that when in their group, people are more likely to be influenced by social identity than by personal identity, and people also may consider others who are not in their group as belonging to an “out–group”.  In a group threat situation, one’s behavior would be determined by their social identity, whereas in a personal threat situation, one’s behavior would be determined by their personal identity.  This is the case in Grease—the scene where Danny pretends like he doesn’t know the overexcited and lovestruck Sandy when they finally come face–to–face while surrounded by Danny’s in–group members, is a perfect example of one’s social identity kicking in when there is a possible threat to the group (in this case, the threat would be to Danny’s status as the leader and, by extension, to the group’s hierarchy and status).

Many films of the 1970s and 80s dealt with intergroup behavior, such as The Outsiders, West Side Story, and the Breakfast Club— the in–group vs. the out–group theme is usually a big moneymaker theme for the movie industry.  Ultimately, and I think this is why people love this movie, Danny  allows his personal identity rather than his social identity determine his behavior and decides that, in the name of love, he will sacrifice his positive social value—his status, power, and resources that being a member of the dominant group offered him.  He is willing to trade it all in for a regular life with Sandy.  However, at the same time that Danny is planning on making this monumental and life–changing shift in his behavior, Sandy is planning on the exact same type of behavioral change and for the same reason—love, even if it means becoming a member of a group who displayed out–group discrimination towards her.  She is willing to become a member of a dominant social in–group she never really aspired to join.  However, social dominance theory indicates that subordinate group members (such as Sandy) may want to maintain the status quo in hopes that one day they may be a part of the dominant group and reap the benefits of positive social values that in–group membership can provide.

Intergroup relations can be seen all around us, at work, in the playground, within institutions, and also at the movie theatre.  For those of you who have never seen Grease, don’t walk—run to your screen of choice and watch it!  It is fun, musical, intriguing, happy, exciting, romantic, but more importantly, it offers a deep dive into the world of high school intergroup  relations. 

 References 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology:Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. ISBN 9781483369730

Penn State. (2019) Lesson 6: Intergroup relations/diversity. Retrieved from https://psu.instructure.com/courses/2008549/modules/items/27030727


18
Sep 19

Health and Vaping

As many people commonly know, smoking cigarettes can lead to severe illnesses and death. Although there has been a decrease in the number of cigarette users, there has been a new device on the market in the past fifteen or so years that has become extremely popular. This device is called an electronic cigarette, and it recently has been a hot topic in the media due to the harmful effects that it has had on individuals who use them. Regular and electronic cigarettes have many similarities and are now a subject for health promotion.

For many years’ cigarettes were not deemed as harmful. It wasn’t until 1964 that a report from the Surgeon General’s Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health was released stating otherwise (Centers for Disease Control and Promotion [CDC], 2018). According to the CDC (2018), the report said “that cigarette smoking is a cause of lung cancer, laryngeal cancer, and chronic bronchitis. Since that time, citizens and organizations have implemented interventions to help reduce and prevent cigarette use. This type of work is known as health promotion. Health promotion is defined as efforts that are made to encourage people to engage in healthy behaviors, such as eating a healthy and balanced diet, exercising regularly, getting enough rest, and refraining from smoking and abusing alcohol. Health promotion is a philosophy that guides action to achieve good health.

When electronic cigarettes (vapes) came to the market, they were deemed as less harmful than cigarettes and as a way to help individuals quit smoking cigarettes (CDC, 2018). Vapes have become extremely popular for children and less popular with adults. The CDC (2018) explained that 3.6 million United States students used vapes in the past 30 days. The reasoning behind why children make up the majority of vape users is “because adolescents are especially vulnerable to peer pressure, many adolescents begin smoking by experimenting with their friends and then gradually become addicted” (Coutts, Gruman, & Schneider, 2017). On September 12, 2019, the CDC released information regarding an outbreak of lung disease associated with vaping (2019). Now a study like that quite similarly resembles those from cigarettes warnings from the 1960s. These newly released reports have put people in a fear that is similar to that of cigarettes and a motivation for laws to prohibit vape use. As our society moves forward, individuals may choose to change behaviors due to fear appeal. Fear appeal is the idea that people will be more likely to pay attention to a message, and to subsequently act to improve their health behavior if their related fears are activated (Coutts et al., 2017). In addition to the fear appeal, there are other ways that professionals can provide health promotion.

Moving forward with the present information on the harmful effects, organizations, citizens, and health professionals can help to educate and implement prevention efforts. To do this, we must use primary prevention and secondary prevention. Primary prevention is “aimed toward healthy individuals to keep them healthy and avoid their risk of contracting diseases” (Coutts et al., 2017). To do this, schools can educate students through teachers and educational events as a way to help individuals who have not used vapes. These programs will help to spread awareness regarding the adverse effects of e-cigarette use and how to withstand peer pressure to smoke. Secondary prevention is a form of prevention that helps individuals who are already affected, to prevent the worsening of an illness (Coutts et al., 2017). To help those who already smoke vapes and/or who have contracted diseases, health professionals can educate through social media, schools, and on TV. Organizations can provide discounted health checks and support programs to guide individuals to leave the devices behind in search of a healthier life.

So, will people stop smoking vapes? Similar to regular cigarettes, there will always be vape users. Our society needs to provide proper intervention programs as a way to educate people. It seems as though vapes and cigarettes will never be banned, but we must try out best to promote health and wellness by discouraging the use of these harmful devices.

 

References:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). History of the surgeon general’s reports on smoking and health. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/history/index.htm.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). About electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes). Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/basic_information/e-cigarettes/about-e-cigarettes.html

Coutts, L. M., Gruman, J. A., & Schneider, F. W. (2017). Applied social psychology understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.


27
Mar 19

Bystander Effect at PSU Frat Emergency

During this week’s assigned readings in Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts, we learned about the bystander effect. The bystander effect is defined as a phenomenon that occurs when multiple witnesses of an emergency fail to get involved (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts). There are three triggers related to the bystander effect: Audience inhibition, social influence, and diffusion of responsibility (Latane & Nida, 1981).

  • Audience inhibition: A bystander may choose not to intervene in an emergency because they are afraid of embarrassing themselves in front of other people (Latane & Nida, 1981).
  • Social influence: When bystanders do not know how to act in an emergency situation, they will look to other bystanders for cues on how to act in the ambiguous situation. Unfortunately, in an ambiguous situation, most of the bystanders will not know how to act and everyone will be looking for cues from each other. This results in none of the bystanders getting involved (Latane & Nida, 1981).
  • Diffusion of responsibility: Bystanders believe they do not need to help in an emergency because someone else will (Latane & Nida, 1981).

Since I have learned about the bystander effect, I have been thinking of tragedies that could have been prevented if proper help was initiated. One tragedy that sticks out to me is the incident that occurred on February 2, 2017 at The Pennsylvania State University. Unfortunately, it is possible that the bystander effect influenced events that led up to the death of Tim Piazza.

FULL DISCLOSURE: THIS ANALYSIS IS BASED OFF OF INFORMATION FROM NEWS REPORTS. I DO NOT CLAIM TO KNOW EXACTLY WHAT HAPPENED ON THE NIGHT OF FEBRUARY 2, 2017, AS ONLY THE PEOPLE WHO WERE THERE DO.

For those who do not know, Tim Piazza was a sophomore at Penn State University who died from a collapsed lung, lacerated spleen, and a fractured skull after a bid-acceptance night at Beta Theta Pi (Pallotto, 2019). Below, I will address the incidents that occurred (reported by Benjamin Wallace of Vanity Fair) and how they could have been influenced by the bystander effect:

Tim was extremely intoxicated and fell down the basement stairs. After some time, a few of his fraternity brothers carried him back upstairs. Tim was obviously unconscious and had multiple visible injuries, but they set him on the couch and carried on with the night. Every single person at the fraternity house physically saw Tim and the condition he was in, yet no one did anything. Finally, one of the fraternity brothers argued with another that they needed to call 911 and got shoved. 911 was not called and the party continued. The party eventually ended and everyone left, leaving Tim alone for the remainder of the night. Two fraternity brothers found Tim the next morning and did not call 911 for almost an hour after (Wallace, 2017).

  • Audience inhibition: It is possible that the bystanders (fraternity brothers, other party-goers) did not call 911 or try to help Tim in any other ways because they were afraid they would be ostracized for it. In fact, this actually occurred when a fraternity brother wanted to call 911 and got pushed across the room for it.
  • Social influence: It is possible that the emergency that occurred was ambiguous. Some of the fraternity brothers and other people at the party may not have understood what exactly was going on with Tim. It is also possible they thought he was just black-out drunk like they have seen hundreds of other college students. It is also possible that the bystanders were too intoxicated to fully understand the circumstances of the situation. With this being said, the bystanders most likely looked to other bystanders to know how to react to the situation, and everyone was responding by ignoring the emergency and going on with the party.
  • Diffusion of responsibility: It is possible that the bystanders of the emergency thought that there were so many other people at the party, someone must have had called 911. Bystanders also may have assumed it was the president of the fraternity or the upperclassmen’s responsibility to get help.

Tragedies can be avoided if the proper help is initiated. However, due to the bystander effect, witnesses of an emergency often fail to get involved or get help because of audience inhibition, social influence, and/or diffusion of responsibility. Unfortunately, it is possible that the bystander effect contributed to the wrongful and premature death of Tim Piazza. As college students, it is important that we keep the bystander effect in mind if we are ever in an emergency situation like the one Tim and his fraternity brothers were in. Remembering the bystander effect could actually save a life.

 

References:

Latané, B., & Nida, S. (1981). Ten years of research on group size and helping. Psychological Bulletin, 89(2), 308-324. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.2.308

Pallotto, Bret. (2019). It’s Been 2 Years Since Tim Piazza’s Death at Penn State. Here’s What’s Happened Since. Retrieved from: https://www.centredaily.com/news/local/community/state-college/article225340915.html

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Wallace, Benjamin. (2017). How a Fatal Frat Hazing Became Penn State’s Latest Campus Crisis. Retrieved from: https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2017/10/penn-state-fraternity-hazing-death


13
Mar 19

Smartphones in the Classroom

I’m certainly not anti-technology. My laptop, which has outlasted two different best friends, is one of my most stalwart companions and has, therefore, secured its place as one of my most beloved possessions. I hate writing by hand, always preferring to type, and I pity the poor saps who had to write entire novels in such a plebeian fashion. Playing video games is one of my favorite pastimes, and someday, I hope that AI technology becomes advanced enough for me to have a robot dog and a robot butler, who — if we’re talking about sentience level advancement — I pledge to pay a fair wage. At this point, some might question the purpose of a robot butler, to which I would respond, “You just don’t get it. It’s a robot butler. It’s the best thing ever.”

Moving on. 

Given my personal preferences, it might seem strange that I can’t stand smartphones, but it’s true. They’re the worst. Sure, I use my laptop every day and feel somewhat hobbled when Apple’s terrible power cord gives out once a year, but you don’t see me plunking it down on the dinner table or pulling it out of my backpack to browse Instagram while in line for coffee. (Also, I don’t get Instagram, but that’s off topic.) The fact is, I don’t enjoy being sucked into the smartphone’s seductive vortex of constant connection, 24/7 entertainment, and instant gratification. Laptops, computers, and cellphones all have limitations for when or how you can use them, but smartphones, as the name suggests, are highly sophisticated devices that have the ability to perform most, if not all, of the previous devices’ capabilities —anytime, anywhere. For one thing, this feeling of being constantly reachable is exhausting. (Please leave me alone.) Furthermore, studies performed by Ward, Duke, Gneezy, and Bos (2017) have found that the mere presence of an individual’s smartphone has a negative impact on their cognitive capacity, impacting the “the attentional resources that reside at the core of both working memory capacity and fluid intelligence” (p. 150). This effect is positively correlated with smartphone dependence, indicating that the negative impact of smartphone usage continues even when we abstain from checking our messages or scrolling through social media (Ward et al., 2017).

There used to be one place where you were, relatively, safe from your pocket overlords — the classroom. That, sadly, is no longer the case. My sister is currently in high school, and she, like the rest of my family, does not have a smartphone. Unfortunately, more and more of her teachers seem to be relying on them in the classroom, a fact which is sometimes problematic for her. To be fair, the teachers always come up with an alternative solution, but they are not always very elegant and usually entail making her share with another student. (I had to share computers with another student for the first half of my Computers/Careers class in high school, and I still only type with four fingers.) Instead of using graphing calculators, they use an app called Desmos. Instead of normal test prep activities, they use their phones to access a website called Cahoots, which is just an electronic quiz game. In what I think is the weirdest example, her history teacher had them make Tik Tok videos as an assignment and then made fun of her when she said she didn’t have a smartphone. None of these activities or tasks are drastically improved by the involvement of smartphones and only serves to further increase smartphone dependence and penalize students whose parents are making a stand against it. 

Furst, Evans, and Roderick (2018) found that, on average, students who checked their phones more than 39 times per day were significantly more likely to state that they interfered with their ability to complete their homework. Similar to Ward et al.’s (2017) findings, those who were more dependent on their phones found them to be a greater distraction (Furst et al., 2018). While the intentions behind smartphone use in the classroom are, undoubtedly, good, it still habituates students to smartphone use, and that’s if you assume that every single student is using their phone exactly as they’ve been instructed. (I’ll give you a hint, they’re not.) 

As my sister can attest to, students often use their smartphones to text, watch YouTube videos, and, somehow, get away with playing Fortnite in class. When I was in high school, texting in class was a cardinal sin. Today, more and more teachers have embraced the use of smartphones, and this, unfortunately, has the side effect of increasing the number of distractions that go unchecked in the classroom. As Grinols and Rajesh (2014) point out “students alternating their attention between the reading material and their texting [are] likely [to] impede their comprehension of the material” (p. 94). One obvious solution to these distractions is to not allow students to use smartphones in class and to avoid relying on them for things that can be easily achieved through normal means. Ultimately, technology is not something that I wish to demonize. I do think there are ways that technology can assist learning in the classroom, but at this time, smartphones are not the answer.

References

Furst, R. T., Evans, D. N., & Roderick, N. M. (2018). Frequency of college student smartphone use: Impact on classroom homework assignments. Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science, 3(2), 49-57. doi:10.1007/s41347-017-0034-2

Grinols, A. B., & Rajesh, R. (2014). Multitasking with smartphones in the college classroom. Business and Professional Communication Quarterly, 77(1), 89–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/2329490613515300

Ward, A. F., Duke, K., Gneezy, A., & Bos, M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one’s own smartphone reduces availability in cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research,2(2), 140-154. doi:10.1086/691462


12
Mar 19

Pornography & Juvenile Sex Offenders

Pornography is defined as sexually explicit material meant to sexually arouse the viewer via the media (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). During this week’s assigned readings in Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts, we learned about the effects of long-term exposure of nonviolent pornography (nonaggressive, casual, nonromantic) and the effects of any exposure of violent pornography (male-dominated, degrading). According to Schneider et al. (2012), research studies have shown that the long-term exposure of nonviolent pornography can increase negative attitudes towards women, can influence changes in family values, increases interests in other types of pornography, and can occasionally result in sexual callousness. Furthermore, research studies regarding any amount of exposure of violent pornography in men have shown an increase in sexual arousal, an increase of rape fantasies, desensitization of embedded sexual violence, acceptance of violence towards women, and desensitization towards rape and rapists (Schneider et al., 2012). Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts dabbles in the effects of different types of pornography, but I wanted to know how pornography effects the population I am most interested in: adolescents. After applying knowledge from my personal experience and the information I found through research, I have come to the conclusion that pornography can influence adolescents to sexually offend others.

Personal experience: During the summer I was lucky enough to have an internship at an adolescent residential treatment facility. The facility was comprised of boys and girls from the ages 12 to17 on three different floors:

  • First floor: Boys with severe behavioral and psychological disorders.
  • Second floor: Girls with severe behavioral and psychological disorders.
  • Third floor: Juvenile sex offenders (boys).

Many people read “juvenile sex offenders” and think “CRIMINALS! SEND THEM TO JAIL!” I was actually one of those people before I began my internship. However, I quickly learned that adolescents do not randomly become sexually aggressive. During my internship I took a training class regarding the treatment of adolescent sex offenders and learned a few factors that can contribute to a child becoming a sex offender:

  1. They have been sexually abused themselves
  2. They have been exposed to sexual content at a young age: pornography and/or parents are not maintaining age-appropriate boundaries

It makes sense to me that exposure to pornography could be a factor that influences juvenile sex offending because of social learning theory. For example, a ten-year-old boy sees a man receiving oral sex in a nonviolent pornography video and in turn, this ten-year-old boy wants to give or receive oral sex.

Research: Even though I was taught by clinicians that pornography can contribute to adolescents sexually offending other children, and I can make connections between theories from my psychology courses, I have never done outside research regarding pornography and juvenile sex offenders. According to Dr. Sharron Cooper, pornography makes adolescents believe the sexual situations (violent, nonconsensual, unprotected, emotionless) they are watching are normal and acceptable in their own lives (Baxter, 2018). Dr. Cooper also believes that adolescents are more likely to replicate the explicit sexual acts they are watching via pornography because they feel like they are experiencing what they are watching due to mirror neurons (Baxter, 2018). Another study on juvenile sex offenders yielded significant results that watching pornography before and after the age of 10 was correlated with sexual offending in adolescents, compared to nonoffender adolescents who had not watched pornography before the age of 10 (Burton, Leibowitz, Booxbaum, & Howard, 2011).

After reading Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, and Coutts, it is obvious that long-term exposure to nonviolent pornography and any amount of exposure to violent pornography has negative effects to the viewer. However, because the effects of pornography on adolescents were not explored, I examined my personal experience at my internship and did outside research to conclude that pornography can influence adolescents to sexually offend others.

References:

Baxter, A. (2018). How Pornography Harms Children: The Advocate’s Role. ABA. Retrieved from: https://www.americanbar.org/groups/child_law/resources/child_law_practiceonline/child_law_practice/vol-33/may-2014/how-pornography-harms-children–the-advocate-s-role/

Burton, D. L., Leibowitz, G. S., Booxbaum, A., & Howard, A. (2011). Comparison by crime type of juvenile delinquents on pornography exposure: The absence of relationships between exposure to pornography and sexual offense characteristics. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 7(1), 54. Retrieved from http://ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/login?url=https://search-proquest-com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/docview/867317020?accountid=13158

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.


01
Mar 19

The False Confession of Peter Reilly

False confessions are, understandably, of great concern to the American legal system. A false confession can lead to the wrongful imprisonment of an innocent individual, ensure the freedom of the true criminal, and prevent the victims from receiving the justice they deserve. While reading the text’s section on the subject, I was reminded of the case of Peter Reilly, an 18 year old living in a small Connecticut town who, after returning home from the local youth center, found his mother dead on the floor, her throat cut and her legs broken (Barthel, 1976). Reilly, despite initially claiming that he was innocent and that he had no memory of committing the crime, eventually came to believe that he did, in fact, kill his own mother, giving a full confession and even going as far to explicitly detail how he committed the murder (Toglia, Read, Ross, & Lindsay, 2010). Consequently, he was convicted of first-degree manslaughter and sentenced to six to sixteen years in prison (Spelhaug, n.d.). 

From the outside, it seemed like an open and shut case. Just another psycho who snapped and killed someone. However, Reilly later recanted his confession, claiming that it was coerced, and two years later, independent evidence supported his claims, proving that he could not have committed the murder (Toglia et al., 2010). Reilly was eventually exonerated, but there was no way to undo what had already been done to him. This revelation is particularly concerning because not only did Reilly give a false confession which resulted in his conviction, but he also, at the time, truly believed that he had done it. 

How does something like that even happen?

Well, a number of factors went into the making of this particular false confession. First of all, Reilly lived in a small town. He already knew and liked a number of the officers involved in the investigation and had even previously considered a career in law enforcement (O’Donohue & Levensky, 2004). He trusted them to look after his best interests, and the interrogator regularly exploited this trust, claiming that he was trying to help him, even as he railroaded him into a false confession (Berthal, 1976). Reilly was also young. Youth, in particular, are at risk of giving false confessions because they tend to be “immature, naively trusting of authority, acquiescent, and eager to please” (Leo, 2009).

After being taken into custody, Reilly, “was held at the police station overnight, subjected to an interrogation, and took a voluntary polygraph test, all without the presence of an attorney” (Spelhaug, n.d., para. 3) in the hopes that his actions would help demonstrate his innocence. (They did not.) Mirroring Bradley Page’s case, the officer conducting the interrogation used minimization and false incriminating evidence to elicit a confession from Reilly (Berthal, 1976; Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). Reilly was told that he had failed the lie detector test — untrue — and was, over the course of six hours, slowly convinced that he had committed the crime (Berthal, 1976). It would take quite a while to detail all of the manipulation and leading statements that went into making Reilly’s eventual confession, so I will let this excerpt from the interrogation (taken from Roesch, Zapf, and Hart’s (2009) discussion of the case) speak for itself:

Peter: The polygraph test is giving me some doubts right now. Disregarding the test, I don’t think I hurt my mother.

Det.: You’re so damned ashamed of last night that you’re trying to just block it out of your mind. […]

Peter:  Would it definitely be me? Could it be someone else? 

Det.: No way, not from these reactions [to the polygraph test].

The officers involved in the case were convinced that Reilly was guilty, and this presumption of guilt lead them to interrogate him in ways that confirmed their suspicions. As Hill, Memon, and McGeorge (2008) showed in their study, the confirmation bias can affect the questioning style of the interviewer, which can then lead to the suspect behaving and responding in ways that confirm their initial beliefs — a self-fulfilling prophecy. Lastly, Reilly was held at the station overnight, and prior to taking the polygraph test, he stated that he “hadn’t been to bed in almost thirty hours” (Barthel, 1976, p. 48). He amended this slightly, stating that he got an hour or two of sleep in the morning, but his later complaints of complete exhaustion emphasize the fact that he was suffering from sleep deprivation (Barthel, 1976; O’Donohue & Levensky, 2004). Physical exhaustion has been found to be a significant risk factor for police-induced false confessions, and sleep deprivation has been found to impair inhibitory control, reduce the individual’s ability to understand the consequence of their actions, and result in an increased susceptibility to coercion and the creation of false memories (Frenda, Berkowitz, Loftus, & Fenn, 2016; O’Donohue & Levensky, 2004). 

It was a nightmare situation. The transcript of Peter Reilly’s interrogation reads like a Kafka novel. A teenager, whose mother has just been brutally murdered, is manipulated into believing that he was one who killed her. We, of course, are able to read about the case with the benefit of hindsight and the knowledge that he is innocent, but the officers involved in this tragedy had no such advantage. They were small town cops conducting a murder investigation — a challenge that they were not quite prepared to face. However, by understanding the circumstances that contributed to Peter Reilly’s false confession, we can improve police procedures in the future. 

The best advice I can give to you personally, however, is to always, always get an attorney.

References

Barthel, J. (1976). A Death in Canaan. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton.

Frenda, S. J., Berkowitz, S. R., Loftus, E. F., & Fenn, K. M. (2016). Sleep deprivation and false confessions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,113(8), 2047-2050. doi:10.1073/pnas.1521518113

Hill, C., Memon, A., & McGeorge, P. (2008). The role of confirmation bias in suspect interviews: A systematic evaluation. Legal and Criminological Psychology,13(2), 357-371. doi:https://doi.org/10.1348/135532507X238682

Leo, R. A. (2009). False confessions: Causes, consequences, and implications. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law,37(3), 332-343.

O’Donohue, W., & Levensky, E. R. (2004). Handbook of forensic psychology: Resource for mental health and legal professionals. San Diego, CA: Elsevier.

Roesch, R., Zapf, P. A., & Hart, S. D. (2009). Forensic Psychology and Law. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology:  Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA:  SAGE.

Spelhaug, C. (n.d.). Peter Reilly. Retrieved from https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/casedetailpre1989.aspx?caseid=268

Toglia, M. P., Read, J. D., Ross, D. F., & Lindsay, R. (2010). The Handbook of Eyewitness Psychology(Vol. 1). New York, NY: Routledge.


25
Feb 19

Groupthink & Normative Influence: Gucci Edition

Gucci Sweater, 2019

This week in Applied Social Psychology, I became particularly interested in interpersonal processes in organizations. Within interpersonal processes in organizations, Chapter 10 in Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, discusses group decision making. While learning about the consequences regarding group decision making, I immediately made a connection between a current event and the theories of groupthink and normative influence. Unfortunately, many poor decisions that can genuinely offend and hurt people can be a result of groupthink and normative influence.

Almost everyone with access to social media has heard about the latest controversy revolving around the popular luxury brand, Gucci. For those who do not know, in the beginning of February, Gucci released a sweater that many claim resembles blackface. The origin of blackface goes all the way back to the 1830s, when white theater performers would paint their faces black and portray black people through negative stereotypes (“Blackface”, n.d.). Earlier this month, when a twitter user posted a screenshot of the sweater from Gucci’s website, thousands of people retweeted the post, causing an outrage all over the internet. Understandably so, people all over the world are offended by Gucci’s black face sweater, and even boycotting the company. Since the sweater went viral over the internet, Gucci has issued an apology and removed the sweater from their stores (Held, 2019).

Many people are wondering how a company like Gucci, the best-selling Italian brand in the world (“World’s Top Dollar Fashion Brands”, 2016), with hundreds of designers and marketing employees, could actually create and execute a sweater that resembles blackface. How is it possible that various people working for a $12.4 billion company could make such a big mistake? Did all those people really look at the sweater and think it was a good idea? I want it to be clear that I believe a blatant disrespect for black people and black history was a huge factor that contributed to the design being made and sold. But is every single person that was involved with the creation of the sweater racist? I am under the impression that groupthink and normative influence helped contribute to the design being approved, physically made, and put on sale as opposed to being thrown in the trash like it should have been.

Groupthink is defined as a poor decision-making process that can occur when members of a group feel strong pressures to reach high-group adhesiveness (Schneider et al., 2012). According to Schneider et al. (2012), there are various conditions that can yield groupthink, including:

  1. High stress
  2. Directive leadership
  3. Over-confidence brought on by amplified sense of collective efficacy
  4. Lack of outside opinions
  5. Over-valuing group cohesion and solidarity

Normative influence is defined as pressure to act or think a certain way to achieve social approval and prevent negative social consequences (Schneider et al., 2012). Keeping the definitions of groupthink and normative influence in mind, we can imagine how these theories could have caused the blackface sweater design to be approved. For example, it is highly possibly that there is a group of people who work for Gucci who look at designs and give them the “okay” to be physically made and then sold either in stores or online. We can imagine a room of 30 people hastily looking through sketches of designs because a deadline for a new collection is the following day (high stress). When the sketch for the sweater comes up, 25 out of the 30 people in the room immediately make the connection between the design and blackface and know that the design should not be approved. However, out of the 5 people with various situational variables that cause them to not feel negatively about the design (racism, ignorance, apathy, distraction), 4 of them have considerably higher control in the company than everyone else in the room, including the person who is the leader of the group: the creative director. In line with groupthink, the creative director expresses his approval for the sweater right away (directive leadership). Following the creative director’s lead, 14 more people approve the sweater. However, the 15 people left are trying to decide if they are going to speak up or not. When one person expresses their concerns, the creative director makes a negative, embarrassing comment towards the person (negative social consequence) and moves on with the discussion. The remaining 14 people saw how the creative director treated the person with an opposing opinion and did not want the same consequence (normative influence) and wanted to maintain cohesion within the group (groupthink), so they decided to approve the design even though they truly felt like it was not the right decision.

When companies as popular as Gucci make extremely poor choices like they did with the blackface sweater, people question how it is even possible. While the obvious disrespect for black people is an explanation, this situation also displays the problems of group decision making. Specifically, it shows how groupthink and normative influence can result in poor decisions that insult and hurt others.

 

References:

Blackface: The Birth of an American Stereotype. (n.d). Retrieved from https://nmaahc.si.edu/blog-post/blackface-birth-american-stereotype

Gucci Sweater. (2019). [image]. Image retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2019/02/07/692314950/gucci-apologizes-and-removes-sweater-following-blackface-backlash

Held, A. (2019). Gucci Apologizes And Removes Sweater Following ‘Blackface’ Backlash. npr. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2019/02/07/692314950/gucci-apologizes-and-removes-sweater-following-blackface-backlash

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

World’s Top Billion Dollar Fashion Brands. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.fashion-schools.org/articles/world%E2%80%99s-top-billion-dollar-fashion-brands


24
Feb 19

Quitting When the Going Gets Tough

My friend recently quit her job. It wasn’t exactly a “big deal” in the grand scheme of things — she worked there part-time, using the money to help pay for school — but she probably would have continued working at the restaurant until she graduated if it hadn’t been for the new owner. Now, I won’t say that she ever really enjoyed working there, but the old owners were nice and gave her a consistent schedule, so she seemed to think that it was alright. Unfortunately, about a year ago, they ended up selling, and the restaurant got a new owner. He was young and used curse words at work, which apparently meant that he was supposed to be “cool.” Too bad it didn’t mean that he could run a business. 

The changes came slowly, and looking back, it’s almost like he was trying to sneak it past them. He began with occasionally understaffing them and not ordering enough supplies, and soon that became the new norm. The plants on the patio died around a month after he took over, and their dead carcasses stuck around for the next six months. At first, she thought that everything would get better with time. There is a learning curve to any new endeavor. However, around the time they started to consistently run out of things like napkins and bleach, she’d lost all hope. I mean, a customer would ask for some napkins, and she’d have to apologize and offer them some paper towels that were meant for the restroom. The restroom. That’s an indignity no customer service employee should have to suffer. 

It was all downhill from there. More and more people began to quit, call off work, show up late, and display other withdrawal behaviors (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). Eventually, she ended up quitting as well. Not only was this a pain for her, since she had to find a new job and become acclimated to a new environment, but it’s also bad for the business itself. As Schneider et al. (2012) point out, increased turnover leads to an increase in expenses. Not only has the organization lost the time they invested in the employee who quit, but they must now reinvest in a new individual who may or may not work out (Schneider et al., 2012). 

Withdrawal behaviors can stem from a number of interconnected influences. For example, Darr and Johns’ (2008) meta-analysis postulates that work strain is, indirectly, one of the major contributors to absenteeism. While job satisfaction does not strongly correlate with an individual’s likelihood to miss work, illness does, and work strain is a big contributor to illness (Darr & Johns, 2008). This understanding of absenteeism — that it is more likely to be an involuntary reaction to stress rather than laziness or rebellion — is important to note. If a business notices that they have suddenly an increase in absenteeism, they should consider whether or not their employees have been under an unusually high level of stress and act accordingly. A company who takes care of their employees will be more likely to retain them. 

On the other hand, voluntary turnover has been moderately linked to job satisfaction. Mobley’s (1977) intermediate linkages turnover model supports this correlation and details the seven potential stages an employee might go through when considering whether or not they are going to quit. This includes considering the pros and cons of quitting and looking for and comparing job alternatives (Mobley, 1977). Wittmer, Shepard, and Martin (2014) tested Mobley’s model and found that their research largely supported it. However, they did find that other factors, like organizational commitment, age group, relationship status, and mobility, also contributed to whether or not an employee who intends to quit actually goes through with it. This could help explain why job satisfaction is only moderately correlated with voluntary turnover. Many people want to quit but have other commitments or factors that prevent them from doing so. Therefore, preventing job dissatisfaction should be an important goal for organizations. While Big Business may not care about an individual employee’s feelings, they do care about their bottom line. Engaging in strategies aimed at increasing job satisfaction is mutually beneficial and helps alleviate stress both on the employees and the organization’s wallet.

References

Darr, W., & Johns, G. (2008).  Work strain, health, and absenteeism:  A meta-analysis.  Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 293-318.

Mobley, R. (1977). Intermediate linkages in the relation between job satisfaction and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(2), 237-240.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J.A., & Coutts, L.M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Wittmer, J. L., Shepard, A., & Martin, J. E. (2014). An application of Mobleys intermediate linkages turnover model to a full-time employee group typology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,87(4), 806-812. doi:10.1111/joop.12080


21
Feb 19

What constitutes a “jerk”?

“It’s happening at 8:30 tomorrow morning” my husband told me without preamble when we called me on his way home from work last night. He did not even have to explain the “it” he was referring to; I knew immediately that the “jerk” he works with was finally being fired. I felt a sense of relief that my husband would no longer have to deal with this person who had made his work so much more frustrating, but I also felt sad. Sad for the individual being let go as well as the person tasked with doing the firing. It was a difficult situation.

As I lay in bed last night wishing I could just fall asleep instead of dreading what was going to happen in the morning I found dozens of question swirling around my head. There was one in particular that I kept coming back to. Does behaving like a jerk translate into someone actually being a jerk? No, I concluded. Just because someone acts like a jerk it does not automatically make them a jerk. But then how do you decide when you need to separate yourself from someone versus try to help them deal with a difficult situation in a better way?

When I listened to the interview of Dr. Bob Sutton at Stanford University, I was absolutely in agreement with his ideas of dealing with and reducing our contact with “jerks” in the workplace. This morning though, I find myself still wondering how we get to the point of slapping the label of “jerk” on someone.

It seems like a prime example of the fundamental attribution error to label someone as a “jerk” instead of attempting to understand what caused them to react in a negative way. But perhaps it’s not that simple either; I do believe that some people are predisposed to be mean no matter the situation they find themselves in.

To gain better clarity I took a deeper look at the attribution process and in particular at Kelley’s (1973) covariation model. According to Kelley, we can estimate whether the root cause for someone’s behavior is internal or external by determining levels of the following (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012):

  • Distinctiveness – Is this behavior unique to this situation?
  • Consensus – Are others behaving in this same way in this situation?
  • Consistency – Is this typical behavior for this situation and person?

This method can help us determine if the behavior stems from an out-of-character reaction to an external situation or if the behavior should be attributed to internal personality/character factors.

So then, should we default to labeling someone a jerk if it turns out that the behavior stems from internal factors? I think not, and I think it can even be detrimental to the individual being labeled. I believe that the average person who is labeled a jerk is aware of the stigma they carry. They usually know that they rub people the wrong way and that others don’t like them. While some may seem to be jerks down to their souls, could this be a self-fulfilling prophecy in others? The jerk knows they are disliked but perhaps they don’t think they have the power to change who they are. As a result, they don’t attempt to better themselves and instead write off their membership in the jerk club to innate and unchangeable personality deficits; the “jerk” lives up to the label.

Instead of labeling people we should focus on describing their behavior. Rather than calling someone a jerk, we could say that they responded inappropriately. Thus, it would be easier to detach the behavior from the character of the person. It would allow the person to still see themselves as “good” and choose to view their bad behavior as an exception rather than defining them.

In the workplace, perhaps we could identify the behaviors that we are wishing to encourage instead of focusing on the behaviors that we want to abolish. Instead of saying “no jerks allowed” we could institute a mandate that requires that employees always respond with kindness. The emphasis would be on promoting positive behaviors instead of labeling people by their behaviors, good or bad. I propose that by discouraging bad behaviors, instead of condemning individuals, we could have success changing the way people handle difficult situations.

 

References:

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Bob Sutton (Stanford University) – The No Jerk Rule | Stanford eCorner. (2007). Retrieved from https://ecorner.stanford.edu/podcast/the-no-jerk-rule/


17
Feb 19

Ageism in the Workplace

I am going to start this out with a personal story: the setting is a corporate office. I am sitting across the table from my manager and longtime friend. It is time for my yearly review. I have worked for the company for nearly four years.

I am a 28 year old woman and sitting across from me is a man approaching his 67th birthday.

He begins by paying me many compliments, and gushes about what a great employee I have been. I thank him and say what a pleasure it has been working here. He continues by telling me how critical I am to the team and reminds me of all of the policy and operational changes I have implemented over the years and how those changes have really helped the company. I thank him again and begin to state that I love working here and see myself moving up within the company, hopefully one day soon. He looks a bit troubled by my comment and then gets up to close the door. After the door is closed, he looks me in the eye and says that he would like to “level with” me. He then tells me that while he thinks that I have done an incredible job, there are others within the agency, such as his boss (whom I also do quite a bit of work for) that have actually advocated against me to a certain degree. I asked what he meant, and he stated that they “see me as a child, and that is all they will ever see me as”.

This was a devastating blow, as I had just let him know that I was looking for advancing my career within the company. His boss, is a 78 year old woman. Her and my boss have both stated in multiple meetings that “millennials are all idiots who don’t know anything about real world experience or how to actually put in a hard day’s work”. I have butted in on occasion, as one of two under 40 year old employees in our department to state that that is simply not true, however they respond with “we weren’t talking about you, no need to be defensive”; but now it seems that this is exactly what they were talking about. Those in power in my department happen to be two generations ahead of me, and now I am told that it does not matter how hard I work or how much qualifying experience I have—I will never be able to move up at this company because of my age.

“Age discrimination involves treating an applicant or employee less favorably because of his or her age” (U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2019). There are some laws that have been put into effect that are meant to keep discrimination out of the workplace. “The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) forbids age discrimination against people who are age 40 or older. It does not protect workers under the age of 40, although some states have laws that protect younger workers from age discrimination. It is not illegal for an employer or other covered entity to favor an older worker over a younger one, even if both workers are age 40 or older” (U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2019). However, this does not protect those who are discriminated against for being too young. “The Supreme Court has established that an employer does not violate the ADEA by providing preferential treatment to older worker over younger ones, even where the younger workers are over the age of 40” (Midwest New Media, 2019).

Social dominance theory indicates that all individuals belong to groups and each group provides resources, both physical and cognitive, for the people that belong to the group; therefore people are motivated to protect the group, so that it in turn can protect them. In this theory, people are believed to be always motivated to protect the group(Schneider, Gruman & Coutts, 2012). This theory also indicates that society is arranged by systems of group-based hierarchies and the persons within those groups are typically motivated to behave in ways that perpetuate and continue those established hierarchies. Age demographic is an easily discernable factor in identifying an individual belonging to one group or another.

Discrimination is not always black and white and thus our laws regarding it should perhaps not be so black and white.“In the recent discrimination case, General Dynamics Land Systems, Inc v. Cline, No. 02-1080, 540 U.S. (2004) the company and its union negotiated a collective bargaining agreement that offered retirees health benefits only to those employees who were at least 50 years of age at the time of the agreement. A group of employees who were in their forties sued, claiming that the age requirement constituted illegal age discrimination in violation of the ADEA. The Supreme Court held that the ADEA only prohibits discrimination in favor of younger employees and does not address discrimination that favors older workers” (Midwest New Media, 2019). Meaning that the ADEA does not protect anyone of being discriminated against for being too young, even the person is over 40.

“As of 2017 –56 million Millennials (those ages 21 to 36 in 2017) were working or looking for work. That was more than the 53 million Generation Xers, who accounted for a third of the labor force. And it was well ahead of the 41 million Baby Boomers, who represented a quarter of the total. Millennials surpassed Gen Xers in 2016” (Fry, 2018). This is the largest demographic who is entering or has entered the workforce and there are no protections for anyone in this age group in reference to policies concerning age discrimination. “More than one-in-three American labor force participants (35%) are Millennials, making them the largest generation in the U.S. labor force, according to a Pew Research Center analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data” (Fry, 2018). I personally have been effected by the lack of protections for those who the older generation might consider as “under-aged”. It is sad to me that there is nothing I can do at this point besides look for other employment if I would like to move up in my career, but it seems under the current protections that is all I can do.

 

References:

U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2019). Age Discrimination. Retrieved February 14, 2019, from https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/age.cfm

 

Fry, R. (2018, April 11). Millennials are largest generation in the U.S. labor force. Retrieved February 14, 2019, from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/04/11/millennials-largest-generation-us-labor-force/

 

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: Sage.

 

Midwest New Media. (2019). Workplace Fairness. Retrieved February 14, 2019, from https://www.workplacefairness.org/age-discrimination#7


10
Feb 19

Is Hopelessness Depression Hopeless?

This week’s assigned readings included chapter 5 in Applied Social Psychology, Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, by Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts. After reading the assigned chapter called “Applying Social Psychology to Clinical and Counseling Psychology”, I became interested in Abramson, Metalky, and Alloy’s hopelessness theory of depression. Specifically, I wanted to understand the hopelessness theory of depression, what could cause hopelessness depression, and what kind of treatment could be affective for a person with hopelessness depression.

The hopelessness theory of depression states that depressive symptoms are most likely to occur when a vulnerable person experiences negative environmental circumstances (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). This being said, it is important to note that the hopelessness theory of depression specifies that these two factors (vulnerability and negative environmental circumstance) occur simultaneously (Schneider et al., 2012). Schneider et al. (2012) state that a person is deemed vulnerable if they interpret the cause of negative events as something that cannot be changed (stable attribution) and affecting their whole life (global attribution), otherwise known as the pessimistic explanatory style. According to Schneider et al. (2012), a person with these specific traits could be described as having a specific type of depression, called hopelessness depression.

Just while reading the definition of the hopelessness theory of depression it became clear to me that a cause of hopelessness depression could be cognitive distortions, which are defined as thinking errors that are negatively bias that can increase one’s vulnerability to depression (Rnic, Dozois, & Martin, 2016). I am under the impression that someone with hopelessness depression suffers from the following cognitive distortions:

  • All-or-nothing thinking: “If a situation falls short of perfect, you see it as a total failure” (Burns, 1989)
  • Over generalization: “You see a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat” (Burns, 1989)
  • Mental filter: “You pick out a single negative detail and dwell on it exclusively, so that your vision of all reality becomes darkened” (Burns, 1989)
  • Discounting the positive: “If you do a good job, you may tell yourself that it wasn’t good enough or that anyone could have done as well” (Burns, 1989)
  • Jumping to conclusions: “You interpret things negatively when there are no facts to support your conclusion” (Burns, 1989)
  • Magnification: “You exaggerate the importance of your problems and shortcomings, or you minimize the importance of your desirable qualities” (Burns, 1989)

Hopelessness depression seems, well…hopeless, doesn’t it? Is it hopeless to think a person with hopelessness depression could find relief? My answer is no, it is not hopeless. Fixing cognitive distortions like the ones I listed above is a key to treating hopelessness depression. But how does one change distorted thinking? My answer: Cognitive behavioral therapy, which the National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists defines as a therapy that stresses the importance of thinking about what we do and how we feel (“What is Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy”, 2016).

With the application of the hopelessness theory of depression, a counseling psychologist could practice cognitive behavioral therapy with a patient who has hopelessness depression stemming from cognitive distortions. A counseling psychologist could help their patient recognize their patterns of distorted thinking (vulnerabilities, per the hopelessness theory of depression), show them how they are not valid, and how to work through them when they come up. A counseling psychologist could also help their patient look at a specific negative event (a factor of the hopelessness theory of depression) in a healthy, realistic way.

Through my interest of the hopelessness theory of depression, I not only learned what the hopelessness theory of depression entails, but what could cause hopelessness depression, and what kind of treatment could be affective for a person with hopelessness depression. The hopelessness theory of depression relies on the idea that together, vulnerability and negative environmental circumstances can lead to hopelessness depression. From my research, I am under the impression that cognitive distortions are a cause of hopelessness depression but can be treated through cognitive behavioral therapy. Simply stated, hopelessness depression is not hopeless.

 

References:

Burns, David. (1989). Patterns of Cognitive Distortions. Retrieved from:  http://www.pacwrc.pitt.edu/curriculum/313_MngngImpctTrmtcStrssChldWlfrPrfssnl/hnd

Rnic, K., Dozois, D. J., & Martin, R. A. (2016). Cognitive Distortions, Humor Styles, and Depression. Europe’s journal of psychology12(3), 348-62. doi:10.5964/ejop.v12i3.1118

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2012). Applied Social Psychology. Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. (2016). Retrieved from:  http://www.nacbt.org/whatiscbt-htm/

 


09
Feb 19

Animals: A Cure to End All Ills?

There has been plenty of research to support the idea that pets do have health benefits for their owners such as: lowering blood pressure, regulating heart rate, decreasing stress and anxiety, lower rates of depression, and increasing social support (Casciotti & Zuckerman, 2017). Because animals are known to help with stress, anxiety, and depression, there has been a recent interest in pet therapy in our country, especially in regards to students at college. According to a recent study, “over the previous six years, the number of students seeking counseling services increased by 29.6% and the total number of counseling appointments increased by 38.4%” (Green, et al., 2017, p. 50). There is a mental health crisis on college campuses, but maybe pet therapy could help.

Counseling services on campus aren’t enough to combat the rise of mental health issues in students, especially since many students do not feel comfortable using these services due to the stigmas surrounding mental health (Green, et al., 2017, p. 52). Colleges have found that Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) has helped in the regard as animals are known to help reduce stress, anxiety, and depression and most students are in favor of having pet therapy programs on campus (Green, et al., 2017, p. 52). Several studies have shown that having interactions with dogs significantly decreased stress in college students and in one study, results were seen after only ten minutes of interacting with the dog (Green, et al., 2017, p. 54).

There are some potential drawbacks of relying on animals for psychological health though. Stressful situations can occur at any time, but an animal may not be available for support at that time (Green, et al., 2017, p. 54). Many students have taken to having emotional support animals (ESAs) with them in their dorms, but ESAs do not have public access in the way that service dogs do, so the problem of accessibility remains. There are also the problems of phobias and allergies in regards to animals in public places and so schools must learn to balance the psychological needs of some students while respecting the fears and allergies of other students.

There may not be any perfect solution in regards to the mental health crisis on college campuses, but emotional support animals and pet assisted therapy could be good ways to start. In fact, some colleges are already implementing innovative therapy dog programs for their students. The Yale Law Library has started a pilot program where students can “check out”  Monty, the library’s new therapy dog, for 30 minute play sessions (Allen, 2011). The program started in 2011 and was a great success, so much so that other libraries are following suit and looking into getting their own library therapy dogs (Xu, 2015). Many of these universities, such as the University of San Francisco and Cornell, are bringing in dogs only on occasion, such as before final exams, instead of having the dog there for students all the time (Xu, 2015). No matter what the set up of the program though, the therapy dog programs have been well received by students who wait in lines to get a chance to interact with the dogs (Xu, 2015).

 

References:

Allen, J. (2011, March 24). Checking Out Monty: Yale Law Students Can Reduce Stress With Therapy Dog. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/Health/StressCoping/checking-monty-yale-law-students-reduce-stress-therapy/story?id=13206568

Casciotti, D., & Zuckerman, D. (2017, March 31). Animals play an important role in many people’s lives and often help with therapy, rehab, etc. Learn more about the possible benefits of pet companionship. Retrieved from http://www.center4research.org/benefits-pets-human-health/

Green, McEwen, S., Wrape, A., & Hammonds, F. (2017). The Mental Health Benefits of Having Dogs on College Campuses. Modern Psychological Studies, 22(2), 50–59. Retrieved from http://0-search.ebscohost.com.library.wvm.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=130798576&site=ehost-live

Xu, Q. (2015, December 9). Yale’s therapy-dog program spreads. Retrieved from https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2015/12/09/yales-therapy-dog-program-spreads/


09
Feb 19

Is Plastic Bottled Water Hurting Our Environment?

Water is one of the most important natural resources necessary to facilitate life. With the human population growing, clean water is becoming ever more important. For many people, bottled water is a “healthier” alternative to tap water. As far as convenience is concerned, many people still prefer bottler water to tap water because of its accessibility. Bottled water is sold many places that are easily accessible to people. Unfortunately, bottled water is not only costly but also has a negative impact on our environment.

Many people seldom refill up their used water bottles and instead get new ones. According to the Pacific Institute, “Similarly, bottled water that requires long-distance transport is far more energy-intensive than bottled water produced and distributed locally.”  This statement is critical because it helps reveal the actual cost of having bottled water readily available. Instead of continuing to purchase cheap bottled water, it may be more environmentally and economically responsible to invest in better infrastructure to promote clean water available through tap.  According to the Earth Policy Institute, “more than 30 billon disposable water bottles are discarded each year in the United States, with the average American being responsible for 166 bottles per year.” This staggering amount of plastic bottle use is concerning especially since most of this plastic will end up in a landfill and slowly degrade for centuries.

The need to invest in better water infrastructure is great. By promoting tap water consumption and improving its accessibility many people may stop relying on plastic bottled water. By changing people’s perceptions of plastic bottle use, the environment will be that much cleaner and less polluted.

 

References:

Gleick, P.H. and H. Cooley. 2009. Energy implications of bottled water. Environmental Research Letters.

4: 1-6

Budzaj, D. 2012. U Installs Water Refill Stations, Supports Use of Reusable Water Bottles.

http://sustainability.umich.edu/news/u-installs-water-refill-stations-supports-use-reusable water-bottles.

 

 


06
Feb 19

Understanding Stress

Stress affects the momentum of our life. It affects the way we think about ourselves, the way we think about others, as well as the way we think about the world around us. It also affects the way we feel about ourselves, our relationships, our choices, and our environment. “Stressors have a major influence upon mood, our sense of well-being, behavior, and health” (Schneiderman, Ironson, & Siegel, 2008). There are many factors that can affect an individual’s perceived stress level and how that stress level interacts with illness. Some of the more common aspects include categories in nature (biological vulnerability, inherited factors) and nurture (taught behavior); but equally as important as the occurrence of these factors is the volume and frequency of stressors being placed on the individual.

Age (a biological factor) can have a big impact on the health outcome of someone with many taxing stressors. “Because evolution has provided mammals with reasonably effective homeostatic mechanisms (e.g., baroreceptor reflex) for dealing with short-term stressors, acute stress responses in young, healthy individuals typically do not impose a health burden. However, if the threat is persistent, particularly in older or unhealthy individuals, the long-term effects of the response to stress may damage health” (Schneiderman, 1983).

Presence of illness and level of stress impacting the diseased individual’s life often times feed off of one another. For example, “the impact of life stressors has been studied within the context of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) spectrum disease. Leserman et al. (2000) followed men with HIV for up to 7.5 years and found that faster progression to AIDS was associated with higher cumulative stressful life events, use of denial as a coping mechanism, lower satisfaction with social support, and elevated serum cortisol” (Leserman, Pettito, Golden, Gaynes, Gu, & Perkins, 2000).

The manifestation of stressors many times will increase the symptoms of the disease, thus altering something as drastic as a person’s life expectancy. “Adverse effects of chronic stressors are particularly common in humans, possibly because their high capacity for symbolic thought may elicit persistent stress responses to a broad range of adverse living and working conditions. The relationship between psychosocial stressors and chronic disease is complex. It is affected, for example, by the nature, number, and persistence of the stressors as well as by the individual’s biological vulnerability (i.e., genetics, constitutional factors) and learned patterns of coping” (Schneiderman et al., 2008).

Identifying the stressor(s) is the first step toward a healthy mind, something that can have a real impact on an afflicted body. “Potentially stressful life events are thought to increase risk for disease when one perceives that the demands these events impose tax or exceed a person’s adaptive capacity” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). “The perception of stress may influence the pathogenesis of physical disease by causing negative affective states, e.g. feelings of anxiety and depression, which then exert direct effects on physiological processes or behavioral patterns that influence disease risk” (Cohen, & Janicki-Deverts, 2012).

To assess the degree to which people perceive their lives as stressful, The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) was created. “The scale measures psychological stress associated with sex, age, education, income, employment status, and a number of other demographics. High levels of stress are associated with poor self-reported health, elevated blood pressure, depression, and susceptibility to infection. Subjects indicate how often they have found their lives unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded in the last month.” (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). It is a ten item scale that ranks questions on a continuum from 0 to 4, 0 being never and 4 being very often.

“The PSS was designed for use with community samples with at least a junior high school education, the items are easy to understand and the response alternatives are simple to grasp. Moreover, as noted above, the questions are quite general in nature and hence relatively free of content specific to any sub population group” (Cohen et al., 1983).

Psychosocial interventions have proven useful at times in influencing the outcome of chronic diseases, but these interventions require the identification of stressors in order to construct a specialized strategy for stress reduction. It is important to connect the affects that a healthy mind can have on a body, as well as recognizing the influence that a tormented one may have.

 

Resources:

Schneiderman, N., Ironson, G., & Siegel, S. (2008, October 16). STRESS AND HEALTH: Psychological, Behavioral, and Biological Determinants. Retrieved February 6, 2019, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2568977/#R134

 

Schneiderman N. Pathophysiology in animals. In: Dembroski TM, Schmidt TH, Blümhen G, editors. Biobehavioral Bases of Coronary Heart Disease. Basel: Karger; 1983. pp. 304–364.

 

Leserman J, Pettito JM, Golden RN, Gaynes BN, Gu H, Perkins DO. The impact of stressful life events, depression, social support, coping and cortisol on progression to AIDS. Am. J. Psychiatry. 2000; 57:1221–1228.

 

Lazarus RS, Folkman S. Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer; 1984.

 

Cohen, S., & Janicki-Deverts, D. (2012). Who’s stressed? Distributions of psychological stress in the United States in probability samples from 1983, 2006 and 2009. Journal of Applied Social Psychology.

 

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396.

 

Trull, T. J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2013). Clinical Psychology (Eighth ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

 


03
Feb 19

To Recycle or Not to Recycle?

Recycling, the solution to our landfill problems, or so we thought. “American recycling has stalled. And industry leaders warn that the situation is worse than it appears” (Davis, 2015). The problems started with having mixed recycling, an idea born in the 1990s in California, where anything recyclable goes in the bin and then somehow it is separated and reused (Davis, 2015). Unfortunately, with mixed recycling, and bigger bins, contamination has become a problem as people have started putting in as much garbage as they do recycling (Davis, 2015). This contamination has resulted in higher processing prices for recyclables, making it more cost effective to just dump the recycling in with the trash (Davis, 2015). Unfortunately, the contamination of recycling has affected more than just local recycling plants, it has affected the U.S.’s ability to export their waste to other countries as well.

China, one of the world’s largest importers of waste paper, used plastics, and scrap metal, made a decision last year to “tighten its standards for impurities in scrap bales” (Beitsch, 2019). Before the implementation of it’s new policy, China would accept bales with contamination levels between one and five percent, but now the standard is point five percent, a radical reduction (Beitsch, 2019). This change affects the cost of recycling, and this means that small towns must “scale back the types of recyclables they accept or start charging fees to cover the ballooning costs of their programs” (Beitsch, 2019). One town has had to start charging residents $50 to drop their recyclables off at the recycling center (Beitsch, 2019). This means that more plastics are put in the landfills, either because the recycling plant can not process it, or because people do not want to recycle due to the high costs.

Recycling may be less impactful on the environment, but “it is easier to adopt, and therefore is environmentally valuable” (Gifford, 2012, p. 297). This has made it an invaluable tool to help reduce our impact on the environment, but how do we fix the problems present in the recycling industry? In 1998, Schultz implemented an experimental intervention program in California to see if certain interventions would increase the amount people recycled (Gifford, 2012, p.307). Schultz discovered that people recycled more when they received individual feedback, information on one’s level of recycling compared with one’s past performance, or group feedback, information on one’s level of recycling compared to their neighborhood (Gifford, 2012, p. 307). Schultz even did a cost-benefit analysis at the end of his experimental intervention and determined that if the intervention was implemented citywide, the benefits of the program would outweigh the cost (Gifford, 2012, p. 307).

However, as Davis explains, increasing recycling is not necessarily beneficial as people are putting as much garbage as they are recyclables into the recycling bins (Davis, 2015). Maybe residents have good intensions, but a lack of education as to what is recyclable results in items such as shoes, Christmas lights, and garden hoses being put into recycling (Davis, 2015). Schultz’s experimental interventions have other applications than just increasing recycling though. Schultz based his experimental interventions on the idea of norms and highlighting the discrepancies between the norm and the actual behavior (Gifford, 2012, p. 307). A similar norm-based experimental intervention could be implemented to examine if feedback on individual performance might affect recycling behavior. If people stop putting garbage into their recycling, contamination would decrease allowing us to export our recycling to China which, in turn, would relieve the financial burden on small town recycling programs allowing them to start accepting more recyclables again.

 

References:

Beitsch, R. (2019, January 21). A move by China puts U.S. small-town recycling programs in the dumps. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/a-move-by-china-puts-us-small-town-recycling-programs-in-the-dumps/2019/01/18/6a043642-1825-11e9-8813-cb9dec761e73_story.html?utm_term=.4eeb7797465d

Davis, A. C. (2015, June 20). American recycling is stalling, and the big blue bin is one reason why. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/dc-politics/american-recycling-is-stalling-and-the-big-blue-bin-is-one-reason-why/2015/06/20/914735e4-1610-11e5-9ddc-e3353542100c_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.22a3b926740f

Gifford R. (2012). Applying Social Psychology to the Environment. In F. W. Schneider, Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (pp. 297-322). Los Angeles: Sage.


03
Feb 19

Life isn’t plastic, we need to get enthusiastic

 

Since its introduction in the 1950’s, it is “estimate[d] that 8300 million metric tons (Mt) of virgin plastics have been produced to date. As of 2015, approximately 6300 Mt of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment” (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017). These are staggering numbers to absorb, and it is apparent that this trend of plastic generation will have devastating environmental effects.

“The amount of plastic produced in a year is roughly the same as the entire weight of humanity” (Geyer et al., 2017).This translates to “91% of plastic waste isn’t being recycled. And since most plastics don’t biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years” (Geyer et al., 2017). According to research, “plastic takes more than 400 years to degrade, so most of it still exists in some form” (National Geographic, & Parker, 2018). Meaning, the plastic we make and “toss away” today will remain here long after our children’s children are gone. “Half of all plastic manufactured becomes trash in less than a year” (National Geographic et al., 2018).

“Worldwide, a trillion single-use plastic bags are used each year, nearly 2 million each minute” (Earth Policy Institute, & Larson, 2014). Nearly 100 billion plastic bags are used by Americans every year and tied together, they would reach around the Earth’s equator 1,330 times. In an effort to combat the accumulation of plastics, many cities and countries now either ban the sale of plastic bags in stores or charge a nominal fee for the use of the bags; a fee that is shared between the store and environmental cleanup corporations. While this is a step in the right direction, it still begs the question about what lasting effects plastic production will have on our environment currently as well as for the generations to come.

Plastics are effectively threatening our oceans and marine life. One prediction states “that by mid-century, the oceans will contain more plastic waste than fish, ton for ton, and this has become one of the most-quoted statistics and a rallying cry to do something about it” (National Geographic et al., 2018).

“Recycling in the U.S. has remained at nine percent since 2012. The United States ranks behind Europe (30 percent) and China (25 percent) in recycling, the study found” (National Geographic et al., 2018). Sadly, our environmental regulations are far behind many other parts of the world.

“The rapid acceleration of plastic manufacturing, which so far has doubled roughly every 15 years, has outpaced nearly every other man-made material. And, it is unlike virtually every other material. Half of all steel produced, for example, is used in construction, with a decades-long lifespan” (National Geographic et al., 2018). An intervention on plastics production is imminent, the question is whether the population at large decides to participate in the conversation before it becomes a very real crisis.

The time to fix these issues is now. “We as a society need to consider whether it’s worth trading off some convenience for a clean, healthy environment” (National Geographic et al., 2018). Taking action as a consumer is one tangible step in the right direction. Using reusable bottles or bringing reusable bags to the grocery store are individual choices that can make a big difference. Sharing information with others and helping influence the community around you can help alter the marketability of plastics which in turn will ensure change. If the choices of consumers show that plastic mass production is no longer profitable, companies are bound to follow suit and will have to find better, more sustainable options to get their products on the market.

Resources:

Geyer, R., Jambeck, J. R., & Law, K. L. (2017, July 01). Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700782

Earth Policy Institute, & Larson, J. (2014, October 16). Plastic Bags Fact Sheet. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from http://www.earth-policy.org/press_room/C68/plastic_bags_fact_sheet

National Geographic, & Parker, L. (2018, December 20). A whopping 91% of plastic isn’t recycled. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/plastic-produced-recycling-waste-ocean-trash-debris-environment/


02
Feb 19

The Tragedy of the Commons

The tragedy of the commons is a resource dilemma concept introduced by a prominent 19th century economist named William Lloyd. In his allegory, he discussed the fact that in our world where resources are finite, people will consume these resources in a self-interested manner which will eventually lead to their depletion (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). We can look at history to see that, in certain situations, this theory holds true and we will see that economic principles may provide a potential remedy for this problem.

For a resource dilemma example, we will consider water rights to a certain creek in Montana. Rob Harmon gave a thought-provoking TEDxRainier Talk in 2010, entitled Blue is the New Green: Water Footprints, on the Prickly Pear Creek and how people with senior water usage rights used their allotments (even when they did not need the water) solely to maintain their rights. This consumption in a self-interested manner led to the complete drying up of the entire creek. We can also see tragedy of the commons when we consider the over-fishing of so many species in our oceans, the irresponsible and extravagant use of clean water sources, excessive deforestation, etc. This is a problem that economists and environmental psychologists are both are struggling to solve.

These examples are evidence that the choices of a few can affect the welfare of many. Economists view these types of problems as negative externalities. Negative externalities are the spill-over effects (usually seen as costs to a third party) that are not accounted for in the original transactions of production or consumption. These negative externalities are treated as market failures by environmental economists; too much of a good is being produced due to the fact that its full cost is not being accounted for (Callan & Thomas, 2013).

One solution for this type of market failure was proposed by Ronald Coase in 1960. In his paper “The Problem of Social Cost” he hypothesized that the assignment of property rights would bring the market back into equilibrium. According to Coase, it does not matter who is assigned the property rights, whether it’s the party we feel is harmed or the one doing the harming (1960). To briefly explain the Coase Theorem, we will use the problem of air pollution.

For this example, the citizens who live around an oil refinery will be assigned the property rights to the air in their town. If the citizens own the rights to a public good, such as clean air, then the refinery will have to pay them in order to pollute that air. Due to this extra cost, refined oil will become more expensive, and as a result the demand for it will decrease. This will in turn cause a reduction in the air pollution. This is how property rights can bring the market back into equilibrium.

In certain situations, I think that this concept could help environmental psychologists mitigate resource dilemmas such as the tragedy of commons and improve the manner in which people consume resources. Perhaps an intervention could be designed that would increase participants’ feelings of ownership of the environment. This intervention could utilize cognitive dissonance in the same manner that Dickerson, Thibodeau, Aronson, and Miller did in 1992 to encourage water conservation.

First, the intervention would establish the understanding that the Earth belongs to everyone which translates to the participants assuming individual ownership of the Earth. This relates to the Coase Theorem as it would be assigning conceptual property rights to the participants. The next step would be to ask participants how they take care of their most valuable possessions, especially those that cannot be replaced. Finally, feelings of hypocrisy would be induced when participants are made aware of the disparity between how they choose to treat their belongings in contrast with how they misuse our Earth and its finite natural resources. The intended result would be that participants choose to use natural resources in a more conscientious and sustainable way. Perhaps if we implemented an intervention in this manner, combining environmental economic and social psychological principles, the tragedy of the commons (market failure) would become a problem of the past.

 

References:

Callan, S. J., Thomas, J. M. (2013). Environmental economics & management: Theory, policy and applications (6th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Coase, R. H. (1960). The problem of social cost. The Journal of Law & Economics, 3, 1-44.  

Dickerson, C.A., Thibodeau, R., Aronson, E., & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 841-854.

Harmon, R. (2010, December 10). Blue is the new green: Water footprints [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV3ZjORGwoI

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.


01
Feb 19

The Beef with Beef

If there’s one thing a Californian knows, it’s that there’s never enough water. For a state that is often lauded as a tourist destination — with the ability to surf and ski in one day being a major talking point for many a college trying to lure in unaware out-of-staters — it spends much of its time in drought or, as a result, on fire. The water shortage is what fuels the condescending letters from the water district about how much water you’re likely wasting and is what drives people to replace their front lawn with AstroTurf, scruffy native plants, and gravel, which, in my opinion, is a bridge too far. I mean, sure, it saves water and MWD will pay you to rip out your lawn and ruin your home’s curb appeal but… at what cost? I don’t care how many rock cairns and cactuses you use to try and spruce it up, walking around some neighborhoods still makes me feel like I’m the Curiosity rover exploring Mars.

From 2012 to 2016, California experienced its worst drought in over one thousand years (Xiao et al., 2017). It “caused billions of dollars in economic losses, killed millions of forest trees, brought several fish species closer to extinction, and caused inconvenience and some expense to millions of households and businesses” (Lund, Medellin-Azuara, Durand, & Stone, 2018, par. 1). It was, in short, a real bummer. During this time, citizens experienced a call to action to conserve water. They were encouraged to limit how often they watered their lawns or washed their cars and restrictions were placed on water runoff and overspray, hosing down driveways, and watering within two days after rain (Western Municipal Water District, n.d.). There was, however, one potential citizen action which was completely overlooked and largely went undiscussed. That is the consumption of beef. In California, it takes approximately 1621 gallons of water to produce 1 pound of beef, making it an important topic in the discussion about water conservation (Rijsberman, 2005).

While protein is an essential part of the human diet, Schlink, Nguyen, and Viljoen (2010) found that beef was significantly less water efficient than any other protein source they studied, including other animal proteins like eggs and poultry and plant proteins like soybeans. In fact, the beef industry accounts for 33% of the global water footprint of farm animal production, a number which is one and a half times higher than that of pigs and three times higher than that of broiler chickens (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2012). One of the primary reasons for this disparity is the amount of feed — which requires water to be grown — that beef cattle consume. For instance, beef cattle require four times more feed than pigs and eleven times more than broiler chickens for every pound of meat produced (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2012). However, to complicate things a bit, the use of concentrate feed in the chicken and pork industries does often result in a larger, negative impact on groundwater consumption and water pollution (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2012). While the beef industry uses, by far, the most water, that does not mean that other farm animal industries do not also have issues that they need to address.

It’s funny to me that, only a couple of years ago, the water districts, politicians, and the news industry were busy making me and other Californians feel bad about watering our lawns and washing our hair, and no one was talking about beef and the burden that a meat-based diet places on water scarcity. As shown by Hoekstra (2010), the shift from a meat-based diet to a largely vegetarian one could reduce an industrialized society’s water footprint by 36% (as cited in Gerbens-Leenes, Mekonnen, & Hoekstra, 2013). Additionally, Chapagain and James (2011) found that, for UK citizens, food waste accounts for 6% of their total water footprint (as cited in Gerbens-Leenes et al., 2013). Perhaps, as with many other industries like pharmaceuticals and tobacco, money is being placed above the well-being of both our citizens and our planet.

In the end, what this means is that, as usual, it really comes down to the individual to make a difference. First and foremost, it’s important to educate yourself and others on the realities of the beef industry. The importance of “educational campaigns lies in their priming ability; […] they get people ready to make a change rather than actually [getting] them to change” (Schneider et al., 2012, p. 307). From what I can tell, many people are unaware of the beef industry’s large water footprint and circulating this knowledge can help prime people to change. From there, it becomes obvious that by simply reducing the amount of beef you consume or waste and replacing it with other animal or plant sources of protein, you, as an individual, can contribute to the water conservation effort. To be clear, this doesn’t mean that if you like to enjoy a hamburger now and again that you’re a bad person. (Well, you might be, I don’t know, but it’s not because of the burger.) It simply means that if everyone made a concerted effort to reduce their beef consumption, we could save a lot of water. On a larger scale, implementing interventions to reduce both the waste and consumption of beef would be very beneficial. For example, students would be a great group to target for change. By designing programs that utilize powerful motivators of change like cognitive dissonance, an antecedent strategy, or comparative feedback, a consequence strategy, the government and schools could help do their part to encourage people to limit their consumption of beef (Dickerson, Thibodeau, Aronson, & Miller, 1992; Schneider et al., 2012; Siero, Bakker, Dekker, & van den Burg, 1996). Besides, even if you don’t care about water conservation, it’s been recently shown that muscle meat cooked at high temperatures produces carcinogenic chemicals, so it’s probably best to skip that burger anyway (National Cancer Institute, 2017).

References

Dickerson, C.A., Thibodeau, R., Aronson, E., & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22. 841-854.

Gerbens-Leenes, P., Mekonnen, M., & Hoekstra, A. (2013). The water footprint of poultry, pork and beef: A comparative study in different countries and production systems. Water Resources and Industry,1-2, 25-36. doi:10.1016/j.wri.2013.03.001 

Lund, J. R., Dist.M.ASCE, Medellin-Azuara, J., M.ASCE, Durand, J., & Stone, K. (2018). Lessons from California’s 2012-2016 drough. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management,144(10). doi:https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000984

Mekonnen, M., & Hoekstra, A. (2012). A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products. Ecosystems, 15(3), 401-415. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/stable/41507787

National Cancer Institute. (2017, July 11). Chemicals in meat cooked at high temperatures and cancer risk. Retrieved from https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet

Rijsberman, F. R. (2006). Water scarcity: Fact or fiction? Agricultural Water
Management,80(1-3), 5-22. doi:10.1016/j.agwat.2005.07.001

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Schlink, A. C., Nguyen, M. L., & Viljoen, G. J. (2010). Water requirements for livestock production: A global perspective. Revue Scientifique Et Technique (International Office of Epizootics), 29(3), 603-619.

Siero, F.W., Bakker, A.B., Dekker, G.B., & van den Burg, M.T.C. (1996). Changing organizational energy consumption behaviour through comparative feedback. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16. 235-246. 

Western Municipal Water District. (n.d.). Water use regulations & restrictions. Retrieved from https://www.wmwd.com/208/Water-Use-Regulations-Restrictions 

Xiao, M., Koppa, A., Mekonnen, Z., Pagán, B. R., Zhan, S., Cao, Q., . . . Lettenmaier, D. P. (2017). How much groundwater did Californias Central Valley lose during the 2012-2016 drought? Geophysical Research Letters,44(10), 4872-4879. doi:10.1002/2017gl073333

 


08
Oct 18

Job Satisfaction has an effect on the Economy

Job satisfaction is good for the economy. There is evidence that employers putting an emphasis on the happiness of their employees is good not only for workers but for corporations and has even shown signs of having a positive influence on the economy.  

 

In the corporate sense, job satisfaction not only minimizes attrition but can also encourage a highly effective workforce. If a company has a reputation for high job satisfaction amongst its employees than this allows the company to be selective about the kind of people that they hire. Being able to hire the best people, most likely, means that the ability of the company will remain competitive

 

High job satisfaction is also related to a high GDP. In a study conducted by Christoph Augner, PhD, of University Clinics of the Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria it was found that GDP was one of the strongest indicators of job satisfaction. GDP was the top predictor even when compared to workers’ career advancement perspectives and depressive symptom scores.  

 

So how important is it for employers to consider the satisfaction of their employees. According to Augner it is so important that when doing so employers should consider the macroeconomic effects. Employees with high job satisfaction equate to a healthier economy for us all.

References

Christoph Augner. Job Satisfaction in the European Union. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 2015; 57 (3): 241 DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000000398

 


11
Apr 18

Classifying Ourselves into Seclusion

Social Categorization, a mechanism that all humans have, is a built in file cabinet deep within the social cognitive process of the brain. Social categorization allows humans the ability to understand relationships and make sense of other people and the world we live in. This social cognitive mechanism allows our brains to classify people into groups (PSUWC, Lesson 6). This natural process helps our brains to identify what is safe and what is a threat to our survival. What is survival? The Oxford Dictionary defines survival as “the continued existence of organisms, which are best adapted to their environment, with the extinction of others…”(Survival. n.d.). It is also defined in the Oxford dictionary as, “the state or fact of continuing to live or exist, typically in spite of an accident, ordeal, or difficult circumstances.”(Survival. n.d.). For this purpose, I am going to incorporate Darwins’ Theory of Evolution as defined as, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring.”(Than. 2018) As you can see the Oxford definition of “Survival” and Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution” go hand in hand and are very similar. It is safe to state that in order to survive; One’s brain must adapt social cognitive mechanisms, by processing the every change world in to processes to survive. This social cognitive categorization not only affects people physically, but also cognitive processes. By experiences, people are subjected to help define their social identity and social dominance to survive. Social Identity Theory incorporates both personal identity and social identity. Personal identity can be a combination of objective biosocial personal markers and subjective personal experiences (PSUWC. Lesson 6.). Social identity comes from self-concept. What defines self-concept? Well self-concept come from self-categorization based on the knowledge, acceptance, connection and commitment to a group (PSUWC, Lesson 6). Humans have built a file cabinet that defines who they are, which can influence survival. If a person has high self-concept and feel apart of a group then the possibility of mental illness also lowers. Leaving less deaths to things such as suicide. I hope your still following me, I know I am touch on these topics, but it all relevant. For example, in Today’s society it is acceptable to have what we classify as appropriate groups and not appropriate groups. Everyone’s perception of this differs in certain ways. Children is the easiest way to see this. If you look a one class, you have students that are skinny, short, pudgy, tall, athletic, smarter than others…ect. These are all categories, that are socially acceptable.

One day you are eating lunch with your child and another child from the classroom has an outburst. The staff try to console them, in your mind you are trying to make sense of why this child all of a sudden had an outburst. Some may think they are not disciplined, that they must have problems at home, that they have anger issues ect… This is how our brains are processing the unexpected action of another child. Then your child mentions that this child is different and it happens all the time, so now your brain, put this child into a special needs category and your concerned for the safety of children. This example is pretty short and sweet. However it does happen. That child is what is categorized as autistic. The outburst was from a heighten sensory issue due to the noise of the lunchroom. This child will most likely not eat for the rest of the day, much less function a productive scale. You have no knowledge or experience with autistic children, you may advise your child to stay away from this child for fear of being different or safety of your child. What this does is start a vicious process to exclude this child for acting typical to their needs. If you have a headache, you go to a quiet space. Sensory processing issues are heighten typical issues that the brain can not process. The end of this situation is that Social categorization happened and started the process of seclusion, because their reaction is not what society deems typical. However, what is not well known that in the past ten years people identified with autism has increased 119% (Autism Society. 2015.). Darwin’s theory states evolution is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring.”(Than.2018) This rise in people being identified with autism could be a natural change in evolution. Based on the Oxford Dictionary is child survives,  based on the state or fact of continuing to live or exist, typically in spite of an accident, ordeal, or difficult circumstances.”(Survival. n.d.) However, because this child is categorized by society and is excluded from social groups, they suffer from lack of self-concept. They are seen as the less dominate within their peer groups. What society doesn’t know about these children is they are the pros at categorizing information, they can synthesis greater concepts beyond our understanding. They are just missing their voice, their self-concept. Unfortunately, in Today’s society we have adults that are excluded based on “disability”. A Categorization for society to make sense of the world. However, our dated evolution has everything in our lives categorized, to the extent of seclusion that is influencing survival.

 

References:

Autism Society.Facts and Statistics. (2015, August 26). Retrieved April 02, 2018, from http://www.autism-society.org/what-is/facts-and-statistics/

PSU World Campus. (2018). PSYCH 424:Social Psychology. Lesson 6: Intergroup Relations/Diversity. https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1924488/assignments/9628601?module_item_id=23682597

Survival | Definition of survival in English by Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.). Retrieved April 11, 2018, from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/survival

Than, K. (2018, February 26). What is Darwin’s Theory of Evolution? Retrieved April 11, 2018, from https://www.livescience.com/474-controversy-evolution-works.html


27
Feb 18

Juvenile Justice System

There is this perception in our society that those under 18 are under some type of legal protection or exemption. I used to think that if a teenager was tried as an adult then they would be susceptible to an unfair trial and that being sentenced as a juvenile was far better. I certainly do not agree with many ways that our U.S. justice system operates. I strongly believe that young people’s age should be a factor in understanding their motivation and capabilities. Therefore, charging a 16-year-old as an adult seems to be incredibly unjust. However still, juveniles are not awarded many of the same rights as adults and therefore may be getting a fairer trial but certainly not a fairer sentence. It is incredibly unreasonable to hold children to adult expectations; therefore, the juvenile justice system needs to be structured in a way that considers their age, allows them a fair trial and sentence. While also providing consistent and rehabilitative discipline that allows them to succeed as an adult.

Juvenile hearings are quite different than adult hearings, the Juvenile Law Center notes that “juvenile court hearings are often closed to members of the public and records are often confidential…however, despite what many people believe, juvenile records in most jurisdictions are not automatically sealed or expunged” (Juvenile Law Center, 2018). A juvenile record may follow an individual around throughout their life, making it difficult to be successful as an adult. Juveniles are not given the same rights as adults, thus having less protection when being accused or convicted and highly susceptible to manipulation. Furthermore, children are sentenced and tried by a judge, not a jury, which makes them highly vulnerable to discrimination. While also being subject to the judge’s personal opinions of the significance of the crime.

Remember the “kids for cash” scandal in Pennsylvania a few years back? This is a prime example of how the juvenile justice system is vulnerable to manipulation. Judges were found guilty of receiving a monetary commission for sentencing minors to juvenile detention centers (NPR, 2014). Judge Ciavarella took advantage of a system that allowed him to benefit from selling kid’s lives to juvenile detention centers for a profit (NPR, 2014). The juvenile system should not have space for Judge’s to have so much influence in one person’s life. Some of the children in the juvenile justice system lose years from their life based from one person’s sentence. This is different than the Adult justice system where adults are tried in front of a jury.

The article, Mandatory Minimums, Maximum Consequences discusses how federal law is reviving the “tough on crime approach” with juveniles (Steiner, 2017). This requires juveniles to be automatically tried as adults for certain crimes, therefore giving them an adult sentence. Therefore many have spent most, if not all their lives in jail for crimes they committed as teenagers. Steiner notes that a situation where Washington teens faced up to 45 years for stealing candy and cell phones while having a firearm on them (Steiner, 2017). Crimes committed by juveniles certainly need to be addressed and some situations may have more severe consequences on society. However, children should not be held to the same expectations as adults, because they are not mentally mature enough to understand the full consequences of their actions.

There are certainly issues with the juvenile justice system that we could discuss endlessly. The adult justice system in America is certainly no model to strive for. Though, suggesting that juveniles be treated to the same extent and with the same expectations as adults is unreasonable. Duplicating the adult justice system with juveniles, while also giving them less rights and protections is also highly problematic. I am simply suggesting that the juvenile justice system enact changes that truly reflect the child’s needs and ensure fair and ethical discipline. Instead of trying to transfer kids to the adult system or disregard their rights to fair trials and appropriate sentencing.

References

Juvenile Law Center (2018). Youth in the Justice System: An Overview. Retrieved from: http://jlc.org/news-room/media-resources/youth-justice-system-overview

NPR Staff (2014). ‘Kids For Cash’ Captures A Juvenile Justice Scandal From Two Sides. NPR. Retrieved from: https://www.npr.org/2014/03/08/287286626/kids-for-cash-captures-a-juvenile-justice-scandal-from-two-sides

Steiner, Emily (2017). Mandatory Minimums, Maximum Consequences. Juvenile Law Center. Retrieved from: http://jlc.org/blog/mandatory-minimums-maximum-consequences


16
Feb 18

Colleges and Intergroup relations

So, how do colleges address and encourage natural experiences and dialogue? Some colleges are attempting to address discrimination through offering intergroup dialogue classes, sessions, and even entire majors devoted to intergroup relations. Some goals of intergroup relations programs are to foster spaces for students to interact. Intergroup dialogues are intended to be spaces to connect students through broadening their understanding of those who they perceive to fit into some different groups. This strategy is consistent with Allport’s Contact Hypothesis which emphasizes the value of positive contact in decreasing negative stereotypes (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2013).

The University of Michigan offers several intergroup dialogue classes for students to participate in. Once students are approved to participate in a 3-credit class, they are placed into a specific “topic placement such as race, ethnicity, SES, Gender, etc.” (Michigan State, 2018). The dialogues are facilitated by trained students who encourage dialogue and discussion in response to reading materials (Michigan State, 2018). A goal of these dialogues is to encourage and foster a culturally diverse community where students are treated respectfully and equally. This program focuses on rich and meaningful conversations with intentionally diverse groups.

Villanova University offers something a little different to Michigan state, as they offer up to three, 1-credit intergroup relation courses to their students as free electives. Noting that “One credit IGR courses are designed to prepare students to create dialogues in situations where understanding and listening are needed” (Villanova, 2018). A goal of this initiative is to encourage and equip students for authentic and respectful interactions. This program defines intergroup relations as an “educational experience about issues of social justice” (Villanova, 2018). These classes are structured to better understand differences among group members through dialogue, exercises, and readings. Each class focuses on a specific topic such as gender, racial identity, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status and students are encouraged to take more than one course.

Intergroup relations groups encourage participation and thoughtful responses to topics related to various stereotypes and biases. They aim to address issues within society, colleges, and even personally. Colleges are addressing conflict resolution through contact hypothesis by providing spaces for students to find commonalities by interacting with one another (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2013).  Consistent with Allport’s hypothesis, intergroup relations aim to address perceived inequalities and foster a space for understanding where all participants are treated equally (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2013). Through providing opportunities for students to positively interact with one another equally and respectfully, colleges are aiming to encourage a stronger community.

Colleges are taking a variety of approaches to address inequality, discrimination, and diversity. In my opinion, colleges have a responsibility to give their students opportunities to learn from one another. I am not certain what approach is the best to take and I would assume that people have different experiences and perspectives of what approach is most appropriate to encourage a healthy and diverse community. However, it is extremely important that educational settings make connecting people and breaking down barriers a priority. Colleges must address discrimination directly and offer learning opportunities for students while also ensuring a safe and healthy community for all students.

References

Schneider, F. W. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

University of Michigan. (2018). Intergroup Dialogues. Retrieved from The Program of Intergroup Relations: https://igr.umich.edu/article/intergroup-dialogues

Villanova University. (2018). Office of the Provost. Retrieved from Villanova.edu: http://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/provost/diversity/igr.html


08
Feb 18

Stress, Appraisal, Coping, and Physiological Responses

“Health psychology is the science of understanding psychological and social influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill or injured, and how they respond to illness, injury, and treatment” (class commentary). It is through health psychology that we will take a look at stress and how it has affected me in my life.

As far as stressful events in life is concerned I happen to experience quite a few different stressors than the average person. This is because I am a quadriplegic and have no choice but to depend on others in order to accomplish different objectives throughout my day, as well as having a slew of medical issues that I may or may not face on a day-to-day basis that most others do not have to worry about or stress over. For instance, one of my home health aides had needed a day off and someone new was expected to fill in for them. I expected this to be stressful because when working with new home health aides I have to break down my care plan step-by-step and sometimes there might be a language barrier or someone just might not be able to follow simple instructions, sometimes people are just simply not qualified to provide the care that I need, and sometimes people do not show up at all. Health psychology assumes that the mind and body are one inseparable system.

It is often “events that are unpredictable and/or out of our control that seem to be the most stressful when compared to predictable and controllable situations” (Schneider et al. 2012). In the situation where my home health aide needed a day off and someone new was set to replace her, that person called off at the last minute leaving the home healthcare agency that I work with scrambling to find a replacement. During this time, I began to experience an elevated heart rate along with other physiological symptoms such as an elevated blood pressure and dilated pupils. I also found myself angry and upset that someone would wait till the very last minute to call off, knowing that the person they are supposed to work with is in need of their help. In this situation I used emotion focused coping, which involves “people trying to regulate their emotions so that they can minimize the distress caused by the situation” (Schneider et al. 2012). This is when I then tried to calm myself with positive thinking by telling myself “the agency will find someone soon and everything will be just fine.” Once I was informed that there was a call off and knew that there was a possibility no one would show up, my autonomic nervous system (ANS) or more specifically my sympathetic nervous system (which is a branch of the ANS) kicked into high gear. It has been said that “whatever happens in the brain (or mind) can affect physiological processes elsewhere in the body” (class commentary) and that was exactly the case for this perceived stressful event.

It is through Canon’s observation that our body reacts to threats or a perceived threat by secreting hormonal discharges within the nervous system that we can begin to understand how our stress response system works. These hormonal discharges consist of physiological changes such as, elevated blood pressure, increased respiration, dilated pupils, perspiration, as well as hormones that elevated heart rate such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and the steroid cortisol (Siegel, 2005). It is through our adrenal glands (that is located just above our kidneys) that we secrete epinephrine. “Norepinephrine is secreted by all other sympathetic nerve endings throughout the body“ (Sapolsky, 2004). Our ANS consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which act like a counterweight to each other in order to sustain allostasis, which Sterling and Eyer defined as achieving stability through change. They had coined this term in order to reflect the process in which different organisms need to adapt or be able to change one or more levels of a defensive mechanisms that help to regulate different parameters as needed in order to adjust to new or changing environments (Ramsey & Woods, 2014). Our body is a fascinating mechanism that allows us to help adjust biological functions not only through the absence of stress, but through that activation of different behavioral actions as well. In this case I was able to achieve homeostasis which is a product of our parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) through the powers of positive thinking which includes replacing negative thoughts with positive ones. It is with this behavioral action that I was able to help my body achieve homeostasis, which is a persistent maintenance and defense mechanism of vital physiological changes that allow for the decrease in my heart rate, blood flow, and regulation of my pupil dilation (Ramsey & Woods, 2014).

 

 

 

References:

Ramsay, D. S., & Woods, S. C. (2014). Clarifying the Roles of Homeostasis and Allostasis in Physiological Regulation. Psychological Review121(2), 225–247. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0035942

Sapolsky, R. M. (2004). Why zebras don’t get ulcers: an updated guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping. New York: Henry Holt and Company.

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.


06
Feb 18

Art and Neuroscience

Have you ever been curious about why some people are perfectly content being a “starving artist?” Maybe, it’s because their core job of creating art is stress relieving and relaxing. I must admit that when I first heard of art therapy several years ago, I was skeptical. I, like many others, thought that the purpose of art therapy was primarily for children or simply an outlet of expression. This is likely because I perceived art and neuroscience to be complete opposites. Though, the benefits of creativity and artwork is commonly underestimated, and research has suggested that participating in different forms of art can have several beneficial effects on one’s brain.

How do two seemingly opposite fields such as freely driven art and the scientific study of the brain work together? Curiously, art therapy has the potential to be much more than this, as it offers a different approach from the traditional talk therapy. Konopka suggests in their journal article, that there are significant connections between art therapy and healing the brain. Konopka notes that “Art therapy has gained popularity because it combines free artistic expression with the potential for significant therapeutic intervention” (Konopka, 2014). Konopka also discusses that even further research is necessary to fully understand the potential of art therapy and its relationship to cognitive functioning.

Many people have experienced the positive effects of art therapy, and some claim that it has even contributed to changing their life. Some brain injury survivors attending art therapy, share their stories on a local PBS news station. One participant, Jennifer, shares that she is now able to “Reconnect with her cognitive functions and mobility that she lost from her [brain] injury” (PBS, 2016). This program also discussed how “recreational therapy such as Art and music can help heal the brain at faster and more complete rates” (PBS, 2016). Martin, who is an art therapist also shares how art therapy contributed to understanding and centering a young man who was threatening homicide (American Therapy Association, 2018).

Perhaps you do not have a traumatic brain injury, and this whole concept seems very specific and non-relatable. Perhaps, the idea of attempting to create something visually appealing may be intimidating. Regardless of your ability or need, art therapy may still have beneficial effects on the brain. Konopka notes that “for years, we recognized that art-making allowed one to re-frame experiences, reorganize thoughts, and gain personal insight that often enhances one’s quality of life” (Konopka, 2014).  Writer, Priscilla Frank discusses in their article various findings supporting the notion that just 45 minutes of artwork can reduce cortisol levels (Frank, 2016). In Frank’s article, they discuss how the act of engaging in an artful activity relieves the very common experience of stress (Frank, 2016). Frank suggests that if you are feeling the burden of stress, you will likely find relief in some old-fashioned arts and crafts.

From relieving stress to rewiring one’s brain after a traumatic brain injury, participating in art is beneficial. It is important to also note that there is certainly a difference between art therapy and personal participation in art. Art therapists are trained at the Master level and “work with people who are challenged with medical and mental health problems, as well as individuals seeking emotional, creative, and spiritual growth” (American Art Therapy Association, 2018). However, regardless of your needs, engaging in forms of artistic participation can have widespread beneficial effects on your brain. So the next time your feeling stressed or overwhelmed, it’s a good idea to engage in some creative expression.

 

References

American Art Therapy Association. (2017). About Art Therapy. Retrieved from Arttherapy.org: arttherapy.org/about-art-therapy/

American Art Therapy Association. (2017). Story Library. Retrieved from Arttherapy.org: arttherapy.org/story-library/

Frank, P. (2016, June 16). Study says making art reduces stress, even if you kind of suck at it. Retrieved from Huffingtonpost.com: huffingtonpost.com/entry/study-says-making-art-reduces-stress_us_576183ece4b09c926cfdccac

Konopka, L. M. (2014). Where art meets neuroscience: a new horizon of art therapy. U.S. National Library of Medicine. DOI: 10.3325/cmj.2014.55.73

PBS (Director). (2016). Art therapy helps patients with traumatic brain injury. Retrieved from PBS.org: pbs.org/video/njtvnews-art-therapy-helps-patients-traumatic-brain-injury/.


02
Feb 18

How a Philadelphia prison reduces food waste through composting

One major challenge facing densely populated areas is waste disposal. Therefore, many programs are emerging to dispose of trash in an environmentally conscious manner. Philadelphia Mayor Kenney is an optimist, with his ambitious plan to “reduce the amount of waste the ends up in landfills and incinerators 90 percent by 2035” (Jaramillo, 2017). Therefore, in 17 years, the city must build programs and initiatives to make the plan possible. What makes this plan so ambitious is that Philadelphia currently does not have any facilities to manage the city’s composting. Furthermore, there are only a handful of small organizations that regularly collect compost from residences. There are endless steps to be discussed regarding a major city reducing its waste by 90%, though we will focus on one major factor, composting.

Of course, composting is certainly not the only solution to the earth potentially approaching it’s carrying capacity (PSU WC, 2018). It is instead a feasible way for humans to reduce their impact on the environment. Composting is a natural way of turning food scraps, yard trimmings, and various other waste materials into nutrient rich soil. This soil is reinvested into the earth and contributes to the growth of food and cleaner environments. Composting also directly contributes to a reduction of trash that gets transported to landfills, thus reducing energy use and the loss of natural resources.

For some cities, the barriers to composting may feel too large to tackle. Currently, Philadelphia cannot physically support such a large initiative due to lack of facilities and programs. However, the Philadelphia prison system presents an excellent example of how how turn food scraps into a sustainable, educational, fruitful practice. The city of Philadelphia’s website discusses how some inmates are graduating with a vocational certificate in Organic Agriculture from Temple University (Chatterjee, 2017). Incarcerated students learn through working on a large and extensive farm and composting program within the Philadelphia prison system, composting hundreds of pounds of food waste daily (Chatterjee, 2017). Chatterjee also notes: “The program helped them make connections between food, agriculture, and adverse impacts of the food system on climate change” (Chatterjee, 2017).

According to Applied Social Psychology: “Sometimes, social change is accomplished by empowering the social group or facilitating its members’ social action in some way” (Schneider, 2013). This is what Sustainability Manager, Laura Cassidy initiated within the prison system. A program began that allowed the inmates to work on a program that took their food scraps and turned them into soil and thus produced a farm. This created a cycle of sustainability, while also providing job training, educational certificates, and influencing the culture to one that in conscious of food and how it influences the environment.

Programs such as this are extremely valuable, as they reduce to amount of energy wasted on trash disposal, while also providing jobs, educational opportunities, and fresh healthy food. This saves money and reduces the negative impact on the environment. Other organizations can use this as an example to reduce their negative impact by increasing sustainable and highly-beneficial composting programs. Finally, programs such as this are a way to influence social change, through the inmates participating and directly experiencing the positive influence of such a program.

References

Chatterjee, H. (2017, May 16). Outside the walls. Retrieved from City of Philadelphia: https://beta.phila.gov/posts/office-of-sustainability/2017-07-13-a-new-cohort-of-graduates-in-organic-agriculture/

Jaramillo, C. (2017, February 6). Composting in Philadelphia: Where we are and where we are going. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from Plan Philly: a project of WHYY: http://planphilly.com/articles/2017/02/06/composting-in-philadelphia-where-we-are-and-where-we-are-going

Pennsylvania State University, World Campus. (2018). PSYCH 424: Lesson 4: The Environment. Retrieved from CANVAS: https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1924488/modules

Schneider, F. W. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Second Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.


16
Apr 17

Social Change and Urban Rebellion

Social change and urban rebellion

What is social change research and what are the different forms of social change research? How can we use social change research in our and others daily lives to make improvements? One of the topics that I found very interesting is the effect of social change research in the “Ghetto”. What does the word ghetto means? How can we use social change research to help individuals, mainly youths who reside in the ghetto to have better lives and a possible better future?

Social change research comes in several different forms, but the general idea is that the researchers are actively changing something in a social situation that they are a part of. There is Participatory research which is when the researchers are a part of the community and they get involved to learn things about the community that they live in. A good example of such research would be an individual who lives in the ghetto and is constantly tries to bring changes in the ghetto to better the lives of its residents. The second kind of social change research would be Activist research which goes beyond participatory research. The researcher is not only vested in the outcome of the research, but may be pushing a certain value set through their research (Nelson A., 2017).

Social research is a critical foundation for programs that seek to engage communities in change and in the development of more sustainable societies. Without appropriate research, programs aimed at change are likely to be based on implicit or assumed problem identification and or inferred community needs and wishes. I Personally don’t like to use the word ghetto. The term “ghetto” dates to describing the neighborhoods to which Jewish Europeans were confined. More recently, it’s been used in the U.S. to describe urban neighborhoods where minority groups live out of economic pressures (Izadi E., 2011).

To bring change in the less fortunate areas of the city, the residents of that community need to act and figure out what can they do to better their lives and the lives of the people in their community. This would be a perfect example of participatory research. For example, the leaders of the said communities can with the help of parents, educate the youth and provide them with options to do volunteer work after school. Living in a ghetto gives its inhabitants a certain community feeling, a certain sense of comfort and familiarity that they would find hard to get anywhere. Personal sense of comfort, community and normalcy matter much more to an individual when they do not possess economic comfort (Bandyopadhyay K., 2015).

I believe the best social change research method that would be effective in the said areas, would be the participatory research which is research conducted by the residence of that community. The researcher would understand the issues within that community better than anyone else and would be able to design and implement a plan to bring change within that community. Moving from a ghetto is not as easy as just packing up and moving out. People often get caught in the cycle of poverty. Therefore, getting the education and other life skills to move them out of that cycle can be very difficult, however it is possible with the help of the leaders of the community and by providing opportunities to those in need.

References

Bandyopadhyay K., Quora, (2015, May 9). Why do People Stay in the Ghetto When They Can Move Elsewhere? Retrieved April 15, 2017, from www.quora.com

Izadi E., DCentric, (2011, May 11). Ghetto: Five Reasons to Rethink the Word. Retrieved April 15, 2017, from www.dcentric.wamu.org

Nelson, A. (2017). Lesson 13. Applied social psychology: Social Change / Participatory Research. Presented on the PSYCH 424 course content site lecture at the Pennsylvania State University.


14
Apr 17

The Kinder & Braver World Project

The Kinder & Braver World Project portray participatory action research as, “a process through which people investigate meaningful social topics, participate in research to understand the root causes of problems that directly impact them, and then take action to influence policies through dissemination of their findings to policymakers and stakeholders (Powers & Allaman, 2012).”  The goal of the research is to expand their social movement into youth communities and encourage leadership.  Schneider describes social action as, “by organizing you can stimulate collective action in the community that generates power to create change (Schneider, 2012).”  Various programs have been designed to add value and promote positive change within communities.

Everyone has their own perspective on how they feel about a particular problem.  Relatively, it is necessary to customize programs that define unique qualities among young people and adults.  After engaging with individualized concerns, a plan for social change may be created.  The plan should clearly define a purpose and identify goals for addressing change.  By involving youthful communities in the developing a plan for social change, young individuals will learn how to address diverse communal issues.  They will learn how to relate to others from various backgrounds, cultures, and opinions.  Youth engagement models are effective for improving issues surrounding a common goal, as well as promoting relations that will motivate involvement.

Youth United for Change (YUC) is a veteran-based organization established in Philadelphia.  The group aims to meet the wishes and needs of young individuals within the community.  Generally, group activities and meetings take place in schools in order to reach out to the youth population.  Organizers promote relationships and address any ideas or worries that the young community may have regarding the world around them.  YUC wants to make sure that juveniles feel like their heard, and their needs are important.  Additionally, the process positively impacts leadership skills and relationships.  Conclusively, the program is an effective way for children to voice their opinion and propose any questions about social reform.

 

Powers, C.B., Allaman, E. (2012, December 17). How Participatory Action Research Can Promote Social Change and Help Youth Development – The Kinder & Braver World Project: Research Series. Retrieved April 14, 2017 from http://cyber.harvard.edu/sites/cyber.harvard.edu/files/KBWParticipatoryActionResearch2012.pdf

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1412976381

 


08
Apr 17

Applied Social Psychology in Our Daily Lives

Social psychologists agree that the research findings in the field can be very helpful when they are applied to our own lives (Nelson A., 2017). Social psychology can be used in different areas of our lives such as, our way of thinking, relationships (personal and professional), physical and mental health etc. At the center of all these, it’s human social cognitive system interacting with everyday situations. What are some ways that we can use applied social psychology to better our everyday lives? I am sure that we all can work on ourselves and improve different areas of our lives. Some of us have relationship issues, whether personal or professional and we can always use findings from applied social psychology research to improve the said relationships. I had mentioned Social cognitive system initially and how it interacts with our everyday real situations which brings me to the question of what is Social Cognition?

Social cognition means the process of thinking about ourselves and other people. According to Allport (1985) social cognition is a major idea in social psychology attempting to understand how our thoughts, personal feelings and behavior of individuals are all influenced by the actual, imagined and or implied presence of others (Nelson A., 2017). Our minds are designed for hot action-oriented cognition rather than cold. What that means is that, it’s better to think less and act quickly in an emergency rather than analyzing the situation and risk the consequences of not responding swiftly. The “hot and “cold” action-oriented cognition is another example of a basic characteristic of human cognition that I personally find very interesting. It has been proven that applied social psychology can be used to better our relationships with others. Some of us have issues with our personal relationships, whether it be with our significant others, siblings or our boss and associates at work.

Given how critical our personal relationships are to our happiness, how we can improve the quality of all our relationships? Based on research evidence five practices can be used to nurture our personal relationship with our significant others. According to research listening to our partner we validate their importance to us and increasing the relationship bond with him or her. Compliment is also very important in our relationships, and it increases the closeness of our relationship with our partner. It is very important to notice our spouse and telling her or him what we have noticed shows our interest and can enhance our relationship bond. One thing that we want to steer clear of is social comparison. Social comparison can be very toxic to our happiness, so when we see someone excelling at work for example, we would want to celebrate and congratulate them on their achievements. Lastly, we need to unplug and spend more time with our partner. According to research we spend average of 53 hours a week plugged in to some sort of device (Holder M., 2017).

According to social psychology jealousy is a major issue in our personal relationships and one thing that causes jealousy is attraction. While we have learned that opposites attract, that is only true in short term relationships. In long term relationships, we tend to look for a partner that is like ourselves. In social psychology that is explained as similar-to-me-effect. An example of this effect can be seen not only in our personal lives but it is evident that it also exists in our workplace as well. The “Similar to Me” effect refers to a well-researched tendency of interviewers and supervisors to favor those individuals who are similar to them. Put simply, people are attracted to candidates with similar senses of humor, similar conversational styles, even similar physical appearances (Cliff H., 2011).

In conclusion, it is safe to say that applied social psychology is used in our everyday lives. According to Social Cognition our thoughts and personal feelings and behavior of individuals are all influenced by the actual, imagined and or implied presence of others. Moreover, we tend to use social psychology to better our personal relationships in our personal and professional lives. For example, the evidence of similar-to-me-effect can be seen almost everywhere from workplaces to our personal individual lives. when people must think about how to communicate with another person it becomes a cognitive drain or overload that makes the relationship more work than it is possibly worth. It is more common than not to see those with knowledge of applied social psychology use what they’ve learned from research and studies to better their personal and professional lives.

References

Allport, A. (1985). The historical background of social psychology. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.). Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, 3rd ed., pp. 1-46). New York: Random House.

Cliff H., Weddedness, (2011, October 7). Similar to Me. Retrieved April 8, 2017, from www.weddedness.com

Holder M., Psychology Today, (2017, February 5). Five Simple Steps to Better Relationships. Retrieved April 8, 2017, from www.psychologytoday.com

Nelson, A. (2017). Lesson 12. Applied social psychology: Relationships / Everyday life. Presented on the PSYCH 424 course content site lecture at the Pennsylvania State University.


08
Apr 17

Is Jealousy Healthy or Problematic in the Nature of Relationships?

         Allport (1985) conceptualizes social cognition as, “the process of thinking about ourselves and other people to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.”  Interpersonal magnetism is fueled by a strong desire for tête-à-tête.  Anticipation of favorable experiences sparks excitement while enduring relations with your significant other.  All of a sudden, partner infidelity may come on as a surprise during your relationship.  In other words, deep feelings for your companion may stimulate a strong emotional response that many of us are familiar with.  Jealousy can be experienced at different intensities depending on the situation.  In fact, desirous feelings could promote relationship quality.  For instance, one of the partners may respond to jealousy as being a direct threat to the relationship in which they value their relationship enough to protect it.  Except that is not always the case in most relationships affected by jealous emotions.  Many similar instances are influenced by misunderstanding a situation or failing to emphasize the importance of communication between partners.

        Most relationships experience three distinct types of jealousy including – reactive, anxious, and possessive (Pfeiffer & Wong, 2007).   These forms are distinguished between whether they reside with emotional, cognitive, or behavioral attributions.  John Wiley (2007) explored relations between different types of jealousy, as well as self and partner perceptions of relationship quality.  He defined Reactive Jealousy as, “the degree to which individuals experience negative emotions, such as anger and upset, when their mate is or has been emotionally or sexually unfaithful (Wiley, J., 2007).”  Furthermore, Anxious Jealousy is when a partner creates false perceptions and images in their head in which they begin feeling distrustful or worried.  Finally, Possessive Jealousy involves an individual taking excessive measures in order to prevent their partner from socializing with anyone of the opposite sex, and forbidding them to socialize with others.  According to Buunk’s typology, reactive jealousy relies on emotional  aspects, anxious jealousy consists of cognitive elements, and possessive jealousy is attributed to behavioral components (Buunk & Dijkstra, 2006).  Relatively, Andersen et al. (1995) discovered that cognitive jealousy negatively impacts relational satisfaction.  Whereas, Pfeiffer and Wong (1989) specified emotional jealousy to be positively associated to love.  Determining relationship quality should always take into consideration both partners’ feelings toward how they feel, and how their partner feels, engaging in their interpersonal connection.

          Relationship quality is determined by interaction between two partners.  Communication between each other is a key component for maintaining an open and sound relationship.  Many people are too invested in wanting to just express how they perceive a situation, and will disregard how their partner feels.  In a relationship, one of the best things I have learned is that there are always three sides to a story – their side, your side, and the real side.  Also, do not try to discuss a tense topic unless you are both rational enough to respectfully listen to each other.  Relatively, jealousy affects the content of the communication (what they communicate), as well as the type of communication they engage in (how they communicate) (Wiley, J., 2007).

         High levels of intimacy and affection is associated with how well you and your partner respects the others’ feelings, understand each other, refrain from negative sources of jealousy, and be a companion to your significant other.  Do not try to compete or evoke feelings of jealousy in your partner to cover your own insecurities.  Take into account that you are your partner are a team and are in this together.  If you both want to keep your commitment, then refrain from problematic experiences, and rather enhance your relationship quality.

        Do you ever experience jealousy in your relationship?  What are some ways that you strive to improve the quality of your relationship?  If you are not in a relationship, what are some things you would want to try for relationship satisfaction?

Thanks for reading!

Barelds, D. P. H., Barelds-Dijkstra, P. (2007). Relations between different types of jealousy and self and partner perceptions of relationship quality. Clinical Psychology and Psychopharmacology. Retrieved April 8, 2017 from

http://rebeccajorgensen.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/25353937Types-of-Jealousy-and-Relationship-Quality.pdf

Lesson 12 Commentary (n.d.). Relationships/Everyday Life. Retrieved April 8, 2017 fromhttps://psu.instructure.com/courses/1834710/modules/items/21736698


25
Mar 17

Racism is Learned at an Early Age

Racism Learned

“New research suggests prejudices may form at a much earlier age, but also offers hope that biases can be unlearned (Boston Globe, 2012).”

            Discriminatory and racial behavior may be learned in children as young as three years old, according to Mahzarin Banaji (a psychologist, brain researcher, and racism and physical prejudice expert from Harvard University).  Children are quick to demonstrate racist behavior and form connectivity between negative biases following exposure to episodes of discrimination.

Banaji performed a study which analyzed these perceptions in which scientists revealed how kids and adults reacted to indistinctive faces.  The pictures of faces ranged in skin tone from very light to brown, in which the kids indicated whether they were happy or angry.  There were 263 subjects classified as children (ages 3 to 14).  Consequentially, the faces that could be presumed as white or black were shown to the young subjects.  As a result, the children indicated that the faces that seemed “black” or “Asian” seemed angry, compared to the faces that they considered to be “white” were happy (unveiling the white children held a pro-white bias).  Furthermore, a group of black children did not present any bias toward white or black facial expressions.

Will prejudice behaviors that children learn at a young age stick with them in future adulthood?   The biggest influence of this factor is how a child analyzes in-group and out-group biases, in which “in-group members tend to evaluate and relate to the in-group favorably and to the out-group less favorably (Schneider, 2011).”  The key component that is necessary for children to understand diversity is to observe different groups interrelating in a balanced and positive nature.  Exposure to diversity throughout their lifespan will express that there are more important qualities that define someone other than the color of their skin, physical features, expressions, ethnicity, or gender (Boston Globe, 2012).

Learned racism is the outcome of how often an individual is personally exposed to how dissimilar cultures and races of people interact with one another.  The development of negative intergroup attitudes allows us to identify the causal effect of role structure and self-identity of oneself to other groups.  In conclusion, improved relations and withheld judgments may occur if a child observes positive interactions and attitudes among diverse groups.

 

 

 

APA CITATIONS:

James H. Burnett III Globe Staff. (2012, June 10). Harvard researcher says children learn racism quickly – The Boston Globe. Retrieved March 25, 2017, from https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2012/06/09/harvard-researcher-says-children-learn-racism-quickly/gWuN1ZG3M40WihER2kAfdK/story.html

 

Schneider, Frank W., Gruman, Jamie A.,Coutts, Larry. M. (2011). Applied Social Psychology: Intervention And Evaluation (Second Edition., PP. 7).

 

 

 


18
Mar 17

Social Media and Todays’ Youth

As we have advanced in technology and ways to communicate, when it comes to social media and todays youth, we are not in a place that we want to be. There are some major issues with social media and how it is negatively effecting younger people’s lives. There are several different types of social media websites out there in the cyber world. Websites such as Facebook, twitter and My Space are very popular amongst younger people and even adults. What are the issues that exists when it comes to younger people and social media? How can having a Facebook or a Twitter account can be harmful to virtually anyone? What are some ways that parents can protect their children from the issues that arise from social media and harmful websites? These are some questions that are very real and need to be addressed.

We need to know exactly why social media has so much power and influence on today’s youth. Social media has greatly affected the way todays youth spend their leisure time. However, with the rise in social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter, more and more people are logging in everyday just to interact and share information with friends and followers. Moreover, social media has also changed the way people socialize and interact with each other. Unfortunately, youth who spend a lot of time on social media are at higher risk for depression, low self-esteem, and eating disorders and more prone to feeling isolated and disconnected (McGillivray N., 2015).

There are websites that can affect a young person’s health but glamorizing a certain behavior that will have a negative consequence on a young person’s mental and physical health. Websites such as pro anorexia emerged as a new form of thin ideal exposure. These types of websites put a positive twist on the negative truth that anorexia is not an illness but in fact a lifestyle choice (Bardone-Cone & Cass, 2007). This is a very good example on how often teens and even some adults are being misled by media through its context.

However, there are ways that we can decrease undesirable social media effects in our lives and young people’s lives. One way to decrease undesirable social media effects is by doing research and looking at different sources to see if what we are being told on one website, if in fact it’s true or not. Parents can educate their children by informing them to be very hesitant and careful on what they see on social media. Using technologies can reinforce new social behaviors and ways of thinking, including both desirable and undesirable behavior (Nelson A., 2017). Parents can also limit the amount of time their children spend on the internet and control what sites can be visible to their kids through setting parental control.

Even though social media can be a scary place for younger people, it can also be beneficial. There are countless educational websites that youth can take advantage of and use to get the help that they need in their academics. There is no doubt that the internet can either have a positive or negative effect in our lives and the lives of our children. People, especially the young, are often too open and public with personal information when online and that can have a negative effect in our lives (McGillivray N., 2015). We need to teach the youth to always limit the amount of information that they’re making available publicly. Our safety and the safety of our children on social media are mostly in our hands and we can always take precautions when posting comments, opinions and personal values online. There is always a safer and better way to socialize online, and we need to teach our youth how to stay safe and private when doing so.

References

Bardone-Cone, Anna M. and Kamila M. Cass. What does viewing a pro-anorexia websites do? An experimental examination of websites exposure and moderating effects. International Journal of Eating Disorders. 40(6). 2007. Pp. 537-548.

 McGillivray N., Turbo Future., (2015, October 12). What Are the Effects of Social Media on Youth. Retrieved March 18, 2017, from www.turbofuture.com

 Nelson, A. (2017). Lesson 9. Applied Social Psychology: Media/Communications Technology. Presented on the PSYCH 424 Course Content Site Lecture at The Pennsylvania State University.


12
Feb 17

Release Social Anxiety By Doing “The Work”

Utilizing “The Work” In Reference to Social Anxiety

By:Kristen Jezek

If you are like most people, there has been a time in your life where you have felt somewhat anxious or nervous at the thought of going on an important date or attending a party with a lot of people. This type of nervousness to meet with others can be natural, even exciting for some. However, for others it is a nightmare of anxiety which develops into full-blown social anxiety disorder (Schneider, 2012), crippling their social life and self-concept. To combat the thoughts that lead to social anxiety disorder, and a host of other undesirable consequences, The Work of Byron Katie offers a way out (Do The Work, 2015).
The Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA, 2017) defines social anxiety disorder as “the extreme fear of being scrutinized and judged by others in social or performance situations”. While the person who experiences this may have a fulfilling and productive life in the comfort of their own company, the social phobia kicks in with the thought of socializing with other people, meeting someone new, or going on a job interview. As social creatures, this phobia can have devastating effects for a person’s quality of life. When faced with a social situation, the fear can be so great that it stops the person from attending the social activity, leading to isolation and loneliness.
The Work of Byron Katie is a method to question your stressful thoughts. The thoughts you utilize to question in the work consist of anything that is causing you stress or disrupting your quality of life. This has incredible implications for someone who is suffering from irrational anxiety due to their beliefs about what may happen in a social situation. When faced by a social situation that causes anxiety, a person would first identify and write down the stressful thought (or thoughts) they are believing. For example, the stressful thought may be “others will judge me negatively”, “this person will think I’m stupid” or “I will never get this job”. These are the types of thoughts that, when played over and over in a person’s mind, brainwash them into an anxiety which cripples and debilitates their social confidence, and can lead to intense social anxiety. Rather than believe these stressful thoughts, The Work invites you to question them.
So, what is “The Work”? The work is a series of four questions and what is called a “turnaround”, in which you turn the thought around. The four questions are as follows:

1) Is it true?
2) Can I absolutely know that it’s true?
3) How do I react when I think that thought?
4) Who would I be without that thought?

The turnaround is simply finding an opposite of the stressful thought. Examples of
the turnarounds for the thoughts presented above are “They will judge me positively”, “this person will think I’m smart”, or “I will get this job”. The next step is to find three concrete examples of how that thought could be as true, or truer than the negative thought before. I might find three examples of why I should get that job, and armed with the knowledge of those three examples, I could feel more confident that it was true. Furthermore, this increased confidence in social situations often leads to a better performance in the social situation overall.
The implications for The Work in treating and managing social anxiety are huge. Whether you are a person with slight social anxiety or suffering from full-blown social anxiety disorder, the act of slowing down your thoughts long enough to question them can offer tremendous relief. If a person could question their stressful thoughts as they thought them (and turn them around), they would be able to free themselves from the crippling fear that comes with dreading a stressful outcome. This confidence compounds over time and with regular practice of asking these four questions and turning them around, the person can facilitate themselves to greater health, social abundance, and mental freedom.

Bibliography:

1) Social Anxiety Disorder. (n.d.). Retrieved February 12, 2017, from https://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/social-anxiety-disorder (ADAA)
2) Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: Sage.
3) International, B. K. (2015, September 06). Do The Work. Retrieved February 12, 2017, from http://thework.com/en/do-work


11
Feb 17

Let’s have a heart-to-heart about stress.

How was your day today? Were you happy, angry, sad, stressed? Many of us would answer that we felt some stress. So, what made you feel stressed? Was it class work, money issues, health, family? Maybe it’s all the above. But what does that stress do to us? In this week’s lesson, in Psych 424, we discussed health related problems due to stress. In the lesson, health psychology is defined as the science of understanding psychological issues, as well as social influences on why we become ill, how we stay healthy, and how our bodies respond.

A questionnaire, called The Dental Environment Stress Questionnaire, was given to 205 dental students enrolled in a Bachelor of Dental Surgery program in Australia to quantify and identify the sources of stress in their lives (Sanders & Lushington, 1999). D come as no surprise to us students, their greatest stressor was their grades. But what does this stress do to our bodies?

Most of us have learned that acute stress doesn’t tend to have long-term effects on our bodies. Animals experience acute stress in the wild most every day, but because the stress leaves once there is no longer a threat, the stress doesn’t have long term effects on their bodies. Chronic stress, which is what we humans have come to know so well, is the type that stays with us. It is the worries of work, finances, family, and any other thing that adds to our daily stress that makes them chronic stressors. This chronic stress is what is effecting our health. Though doctors don’t know exactly how chronic stress affects the heart, those at Harvard Medical have a good idea. They believe that it is most likely due to stress triggering inflammation, which is known as an instigator of heart disease. In addition to the inflammation, stress that leads to unhealthy behaviors such as a bad diet and lack of exercise can also lead to heart disease. (Harvard Health, 2017)

You may be thinking, “But what can I do? I’m always going to have stress in my life.” Harvard Medical School has 5 suggestions that may help.

First, they suggest staying positive. Have a laugh! It’s been found to lower stress hormones, reduce that instigating inflammation, and it can help increase “good” cholesterol!

Next, try meditating. The focused, deep breathing has been known to reduce some risk factors associated with heart disease.

Then comes the exercise. Though it may seem like a pain at the beginning, exercise releases mood-boosting chemicals that can help lower blood pressure, strengthen your heart muscle, as well as keep you healthy and stress free.

Unplug. Leave those work calls and emails until tomorrow if possible.

Lastly, find other ways to de-stress. Is listening to music, getting a massage, or reading a book your idea of releasing some stress?

What you think contributes to stress the most? Would any of these help YOU?

 

 

References

Harvard Health: 5 ways to de-stress and help your heart, February 11, 2017, Harvard Health Publications. Retrieved from: http://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/5-ways-to-de-stress-and-help-your-heart

Sanders, A. E., & Lushington, K. (1999). Sources of stress for Australian dental students. Journal of dental education63(9), 688-697.


10
Feb 17

Bandura’s Observational Theory Influences Violent Behavior Through Observation & Imitation Factors

[Pictured above] is a “Bobo Doll” used in Albert Bandura’s experiment. Findings from the study revealed evidence that supported his Observational Learning Theory.

Violent acts have spread like wild fire throughout the course of history.  Why do negligent acts keep reoccurring?  No one knows the sole reason why one person performs deceitful behavior, while another person does not.  Researchers have proposed several theories which explore the relationship between the brain and violent behavior, as well as other aspects that may trigger violence.  For instance, is delinquency contagious through exposure (personal or media-coverage)?  Some individuals suggest that crime is the result of protecting oneself or people they care about.  However, others insinuate that coercive behavior is acted out by revenge-seeking behavior to punish others.  Another theory investigates whether certain types of brains are more susceptible to violence or aggression than others.  Rowell Heusmann is a psychology from the University of Michigan who proposed that, “If you’re exposed to violence, you’re more likely to catch it (Swanson, 2015).”  Accordingly, this statement relates to Albert Bandura’s Observational Theory, also known as Social Learning Theory – SLT (1970).  The lesson commentary defines SLT as, “watching someone else perform a behavior, then the observer performs a similar behavior in a similar situation (L.5 Commentary).”  The report focuses on the observational theory relative to a clinical/counseling aspect of psychological practices.  Is violence typically learned by observing and imitating actions we see around us?  Moreover, does exposure to violence spark individuals to execute savagery themselves?

A gloomy shade of darkness asphyxiates the victims who have stared fear in the face at some point in their lives.  Words cannot describe the victimizing terror that preys on the lives of innocent people.   Violent trepidation spreads like an infectious disease into the minds of certain disturbed beings.  Why are some people susceptible to violent manipulation, whereas others cease and refrain from any type of hostility?  The Washington Post published an article called, “Why Violence is So Contagious” which highlights key aspects for condoning violent behavior (Swanson, 2015).  Ana Swanson proposes that exposure to violence has been significantly increasing throughout the years.  Conclusively, frequent revelations of violent behavior may be imitated by certain individuals (Swanson, 2015).   Furthermore, the Social Learning Theory illustrates why people imitate the actions they see around them.

The observational theory describes the way that people imitate certain behaviors (such as violence) is through a process known as, modeling.  An article by the British Journal of Psychology defines modeling as, “learning by watching, interpreting, and evaluating peers carrying out a task (Swanson, 2015).”  Additionally, effective modeling follows four stages described as: “observation/attention, emulation/retention, self-control/motor reproduction, and motivation/opportunity/self-regulation (Lesson 5 Commentary).”  The British Journal of Psychiatry (2015) revealed that initially, the learner actually observes the behavior and relevant elements in the learning environment while it is in action.  Second, an individual internalizes the skill by storing the learned series of steps in their memory, so they can remember or reference them later.  Next, the learner must have the motor-skills required to mimic the behavior.  Finally, they exhibit necessary talents and are provided with an opportunity to engage in the behavior (Swanson, 2015).  As a result, the learner converts their mental representation into a physical task.  Observing and imitating violent behavior is the most prevalent in the first, and potentially second steps of the modeling process.  For instance, hopefully it would not be in anyone’s mind set to follow all of these steps until the end while carrying out an act of violence.  Relatively, modeling is related to violent behavior because it drives learned mimicry of the observed behavior from the surrounding environment.

Why do people pick up violent behaviors?  Albert Bandura (1970) developed the observational theory, in which the brain adopts violent behavior mostly by instinctual processes.  Bandura conducted a study, called the “Bobo Doll Experiment,” in order to assess the validity of this causal relationship.  His study consisted of two groups of kids who observed an adult playing with the inflatable “Bobo Doll” under two different conditions.  The first group analyzed an adult engaging in aggressive play where they hit and kicked the doll several times.  However, the second group viewed the adult calmly and nicely play with the doll.  After observing the adults, the children played with the Bobo doll themselves.  The results displayed that the first group (observed aggressive play) were much more inclined to behave violently when they played with the toy.  Nonetheless, the second group mimicked playtime by engaging with the doll in a peaceful and friendly manner.  The article mentions, “the effect was stronger when the adult was of the same sex as the child, suggesting that kids were more likely to imitate people they identify with (Swanson, 2015).”  These findings concluded that people learn through imitating observed behavior.  Furthermore, the “Bobo Doll” experiment incited future research related to the social learning theory.  The article states, “Decades later, scientists began to discover just how much our brains are wired to imitate the actions we see around us – evidence suggesting that human behavior is less guided by rational behavior than people believed (Swanson, 2015).”  Conclusively, much of our behavior is caused by automatic instincts which mimic foreseen actions.

Additionally, findings from the Bobo Doll experiment intrigued a group of Italian researchers (1990), in which they utilized findings from the previous study to test their own theories about the observational theory’s relativity to neurological processing.  In their experiment, they investigated that parallel sets of “mirror neurons” were released in both of the following situations – while a monkey grasped an object and while observing another primate gripping the same object.  Firing of these analogous neurons is prevalent in both primates and humans.  This neural activity takes place in the premotor cortex, which is the brain region liable for “planning and executing actions (Swanson, 2015).”  Additionally, the premotor cortex is essential for learning things through imitation, including violent behaviors.  Neurons stimulate the premotor cortex If we are exposed to direct observation of someone acting violently.  When this brain region is activated, we feel like we are the ones actually doing the victimizing behavior.  Marco Iacoboni, a psychiatric professor, concluded that “these ‘mirror neurons’ (and activation of the premotor cortex) may be the biological mechanism by which violence spreads from one person to another (Swanson, 2015).”  The first thesis statement asks if violence is typically learned by observing and imitating actions we see around us?  Absolutely!  Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) explains that violent behavior is learned through exposure and imitation of an observed act of violence.  The study gave heart to the well-known expression:                             * Monkey SEE, Monkey DO!! *

Accordingly, the second half of my thesis statement asks if exposing people to violence prepares them to commit violent acts themselves.  For instance, is hostility increased when exposed to gruesome video games, television shows, or news?  In other words, does the prevalence of violence in the media expose us to heightened levels of aggressive behavior?  When individuals experience brutality through media programs or video games, they are more than likely not going to go out and commit violent acts themselves.  Although, after continuous exposure they may begin to adapt to these terroristic occurrences.  Alternatively, they may start to become numb to some of the gruesome imagery that they used to be completely appalled by.  For instance, the article compares these feelings to those fighting in war typically grow less disturbed by blood and violence (Swanson, 2015).  Overall, continual exposure to violence on personal real-life accounts, or through the media, is related to increased aggression. 

Hostile attribution bias means to interpret other’s actions as threatening or aggressive.  This bias may be influenced by violent media, or by repulsive actions including rejection, teasing, yelling, or belittling (Swanson, 2015).  Being subjected to cruel media makes people react in a more aggressive manner, as well as an increased likelihood to imitate revenge-seeking behavior.

Furthermore, the next objective will focus on the most effective way to prevent violent behavior from spreading.  For instance, in order to dispel acts of aggression, it is critical to limit the amount of exposure to violence that someone experiences.   Enforcing restrictions on the amount of violent media that is allowed to be published will make people not as inclined to negatively react or imitate violent behavior, compared to if they continued to regularly observe negative accounts of terror.  Incidences of corruption should not be seen as a normally occurring phenomena.  If a violent occasion is not relevant to the endangerment of people’s lives to a major degree, then it should be evaluated with stricter guidelines.  Evaluations will consider whether it is necessary to expose the news story to a significantly large audience, as well as consider how the audience members will respond to the situation (become more aggressive, lash out in a violent manner, become terrified or sad, etc.)  Majority of the time, violent media would be better left unsaid in order to protect the well-being of its viewers.  It is critical that we stop prompting the spread of violent news stories, because many people learn and imitate various behaviors (whether minor or extreme) that they learned primarily from media sources.  Limiting exposure to violence is one of the most effective ways to stop spreading around volatile behavior like an infectious disease.  In conclusion, acts of negligence keep on reoccurring since the human brain is wired to learn things (such as violent behavior) through imitating actions that we see around us.

      In conclusion, violence is a dark and fearful topic to discuss.  The outbreak of terroristic outrage is quickly spreading through patterns of acquired aggression and hostility.  Heightened levels of exposure to violence trigger it to spread at an increasing rate throughout the world.  Evidently, the most effective way to diminish or slow down spread of violence and terrorism is to get rid of cruel and unnecessary news stories, as well as limit exposure to violence.

Conclusively, Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) constitutes that violent behavior is learned through imitating observed behaviors that we notice in our surrounding environment.  Bandura connected our brain activity to instinctual responses to the observed actions surrounding us.  A group of Italian researchers (1990) performed a study on how a monkey responded to grabbing an object himself, or analyzing what happened to the monkey when he watched another primate grasp the same object.  Results of the study implicated that the area of the brain responsible for ‘planning and executing actions’ (premotor cortex) is stimulated by a parallel set of ‘mirror neurons.’  These neurons are released when we observe someone acting out in a violent manner, and we imagine ourselves performing the violent action ourselves.  Dr. Marco Iacoboni (1990) formed one of the most valuable conclusions of this report, “these neurons may be the biological mechanism by which violence spreads from one person to another (Swanson, 2015).” Modeling threatening behavior typically results from high exposure rates to the media.  Likewise, mimicking such behavior causes amplified levels of aggression and rage, which may impair an individuals’ ability to plan and execute actions appropriately.  In conclusion, humans will follow the four steps of effective modeling proposed in Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) in order to learn various things through imitation (such as violent behaviors) and observation of a behavior in which they learn to mimic themselves.

 

 

 

References:

Swanson, A. S. A. (2015, December 15). Why violence is so contagious. Washington Post. Retrieved online from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/12/15/why-violence-is-so-contagious/?utm_term=.fb549a29f126

 

Pennsylvania State University (n.d.). Lesson 5 Commentary. Retrieved online at https://psu.instructure.com/courses/1834710/modules/items/2173666


04
Feb 17

Cause and Effect of Global Warming

As you may have already known, one of the biggest environmental issues that we are facing is global warming. When an individual hears the words global warming, a few things might come to mind. Naturally we think of seas, forests and natural life that inhabits the wilderness. Have you ever asked yourself the question of what is Global Warming? How does Global Warming affect us and almost every living thing on our planet earth? What are some of the causes of Global Warming?

To answer some of the questions we must first understand how does the earth sustains life through energy. Life on earth depends on energy coming from the sun (National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 2017). Global warming is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth’s atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of gases and other pollutants. To further understand the cause(s) of global warming one must understand the science behind it. Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is human expansion of the greenhouse effect — warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space (Nasa, 2017). How does heat gets trapped in the atmosphere? Certain gases such as water vapor (H2O), Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Methane (CH4) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) are responsible for blocking heat from escaping.

Now that we know a bit about Global Warming and the causes behind it, we must understand how global warming affects us and our environment. The environment is one of three major influences on humans at large. Bandura (1986) devised a theory called Triadic Reciprocal Determinism (or Causation) that states that the environment that people live in both influences human behavior and personal factors. People are both influenced by the environment but also have a certain level of control over the environment so that both can affect each other (Nelson, A. 2017).

We must take responsibility for our actions, and as we mature and become adults most of us do just that. As the population grows so does our need for more resources. You might ask, how does population and resources play a role in global warming. For example, let’s look at one of the factors behind global warming; CO2. As the population grows in any town U.S.A, so does the need for jobs, housing and transportation. Building housing and operating factories requires fuel. Using personal or public transportation to get to work and back, running your day to day errands, all requires fuel. Burning fuel, creates CO2. One of the causes of global warming per NASA is CO2.

Some of the things that we’ve seen because of global warming are; longer and hotter summer season, earth quicks, tsunamis, melting glaciers which has drastic effects on our planet earth and negative effect on the creatures that inhabit our forests, seas and most importantly, us, humans. Per the Guardian the death toll in India’s heatwave has climbed towards 1,500 as the country sweltered in one of the worst bouts of hot weather for several years (The Guardian, 2015).

In conclusion, we, humans are the superior species that have control over all other living things on our green planet earth. It is up to us to educate ourselves on the environment that we live in and understand how does our needs, habits, actions and will to live and to survive is affecting our environments. We are on the right track towards fighting global warming by creating hybrid cars for example, or using solar panels and or windmills to create energy. However, we still have a long road ahead of us to completely and successfully eliminate global warming. We can only try by educating masses and creating more green technology, all to sustain precious lives on our home, the planet earth.

References

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Nelson, A. (2017). Lesson 4. Applied social psychology: The Environment. Presented on the PSYCH 424 course content site lecture at the Pennsylvania State University.

Shaftel H., Jackson R., Tenenbaum L., National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)., (2017, January 31). A Blanket Around the Earth. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from www.nasa.gov

The Guardian.,(2015, May 28). India heatwave death toll rises as awareness campaigns launch. Retrieved February 4, 2017, from www.theguardian.com


03
Feb 17

How to Activate Your Brain’s Ability to Learn

Maintaining proficiency is having the ability to keep practicing a task even if you already perfected it.  Relatively, over learning is a term that refers to continuously drilling yourself on a skill past the point of improvement.  The human brain is flexible and remarkable at learning new things.

Watanabe (2017) and his team of researchers observed the process of “over learning” and suggested that the process may enhance overall functioning by changing chemicals in the brain necessary to conceal newly obtained ideas (Pierre-Louis, K., 2017).  A recent study analyzed how to activate a diverse learning response in your brain.

Watanabe (2017) began this experiment by splitting the participants into two groups – Group 1 will not over learn, whereas Group 2 will over learn a specific task.  The two groups were given the identical visual learning exercises to do.  The visual task is described as orienting lines on a screen, called Gabor Patches (Pierre-Louis, K., 2017). The first group did much better on a post-test for the second task (because it was the most recent information their brain was capable of recalling), and they did not prove to be successful on the first test.  Additionally, their overall improvement between the two tasks was low compared to group two.  Furthermore, group two completed eight additional blocks relevant to the first group (group 1 finished eight-blocks, while group 2 completed sixteen-blocks).  During the post test, the second group performed much better on the first task compared to the first group who did not over learn.

Relatively, over learning has shown to improvise lasting improvements after learning new material.  Brain activity proceeding the initial task did not result in any of their memory getting written over or deleted.  Overall, group 2 learned the first task much more efficiently, but the participants learned the second task half as well as those who did not over learn the material.  The first group failed to continue training while their brain was stuck in the plastic-stage, meaning that brain functioning wrote over the implied knowledge before their mind was capable of completely recalling and mastering learned concepts from the first exercise.

Part two of the experiment implemented the same study design with the exception of two alterations that were justified prior to beginning the study.  First, the groups were trained on EITHER the normal 8-block standard (not over learning), or they over learned on the 16-block design and did not receive a second coaching class.  The major change incorporated into part two was the use of magnetic resonance spectroscopy.  The device is capable of identifying which neurochemicals are currently in the brain by detecting carbon and nitrogen (because those two chemicals are present in the brain’s neurons).  Both groups utilized the MRS to scan the brain prior to beginning the exercise, thirty minutes after the activity, and one last time occurring three-and-a-half hours after the study ended.

Over learning diminishes glutamate levels, and increases the amount of GABA (a chemical that stabilizes the brain).  Watanabe and his colleagues proposed that when you do not over learn, the brain reveals heightened levels of “glutamate-dominate excitatory” which makes your brain exceptionally skilled at learning new concepts (Pierre-Louis, K., 2017).  Contrarily, your brain fluctuates from being competent to secure when you do over learn a skill, meaning that your brain has more time to conceal newly acquired material and have a greater chance of preventing it from getting lost from our memory file.  Watanabe (2017) claims that over learning is most likely useful, but it is the most beneficial if combined with other learning strategies.  He also recommended allowing time between learning new information (study breaks), and scrambling study topics until they are mismatched in order to benefit learning processing.  In addition, he explains that over learning implicates functions to process much smoother, as well as it may quicken your response times.

Conclusively, Watanabe’s Research (2017) indicates that if you stop investing in improving a skill right after you nailed it, then the brain may replace that knowledge with different obtained information.  Additionally, Watanabe (2017) proposes the idea of “retrograde inference,” meaning if you move onto a second task while your brain is still trying to learn the first task, then it will forget any previous obtained information as if you never learned it.  In conclusion, the process of over learning stabilizes the brain and implements smoother brain functioning.  The brain always wants to learn new information, but be careful not to move on from topics too quickly because your mind may write over and forget any freshly obtained knowledge from a previous task.

Pierre-Louis, K., (2017, January 31). How to activate your brain’s ability to learn. Retrieved from

***(Link posted at top – will not let me copy and paste URL).


31
Oct 16

School Violence: Bullying and Shootings at Columbine

Sociological research about school shootings indicate that in the majority of the cases, the violence is in retaliation to bullying and harassment perpetrated by the school elite on the school outcasts (Larkin, 2012). This blog will look at adolescent bullying and violence, and then conclude with interventions that might help prevent devastating incidents of school shootings like Columbine.

If we take the case of Columbine, Larkin (2007) observes that the school was pervaded by a sort of “cult of the athlete,” revolving in particular around football, such that athletes or “jocks” ruled the school and perpetrated violence and harassment upon outcasts. This bullying was tolerated and even encouraged by peer bystanders, who claimed that the outcasts were morally disgusting to the entire school.

Bullying increases beginning in middle school (Pellegrini, 2001), when peer relationships become unstable, such as during the transition from middle school to high school. Social hierarchies are in the midst of being established, and given the long-standing tradition of athleticism and physical domination as being signs of the elite, hierarchies are established through violence and intimidation, especially in the case of male students. Adolescent peer groups can be grouped into the jock elite, burnout outcasts, and the rest in the middle (Larkin, 2007). In Columbine, the jock elite was composed of members of the Columbine Sports Association, whereas the burnouts were called “goths,” some of whom went around in trench coats and called themselves “The Trenchcoat Mafia.”

Milner (2006) observes that peer groups can be unforgiving, in that though everyone knows who falls in what peer group, the wrong word or association can lead to an immediate fall in status. The formation of peer groups in the beginning of junior high or high school is therefore a conflict-fueled process, as social status begins in flux and then slowly crystalizes.

Bullying exists in an environment where it leads to rewards from peers and tolerance from school authorities. Brown and Merritt (2002) observed that in Columbine, the teachers would look upon bullying as “boys will be boys” and then look the other way. Bullies establish their higher social status and power by intimidating their victims, and thus are rewarded by rises in self-esteem and social competence.

What does bullying have to do with school shootings? Everything. Of 38 school shootings analyzed by Larkin (2009), at least 20 were in retaliation for bullying. Bullying and harassment ranged from small cruelties to near torture, with incidents of being burned by cigarette lighters. Prevention of school shootings therefore naturally ties into prevention of bullying.

Suggestions for prevention of school shootings have been compiled by Bondü and Scheithauer (2009). At the school level, the researchers recommend the development of a positive school climate, with a zero tolerance policy towards bullying, prevention and response procedures for bullying, and an increase in the number of mental health service providers like school counselors on campus. At the individual level, the researchers recommend concentrating on developing social and emotional competencies, limiting violent media consumption, implementing conflict resolution/mediation programs, and fostering social integration to prevent social exclusion.

References:

Böckler, N. (2013;2012;). School shootings: International research, case studies, and concepts for prevention (1. Aufl.;1; ed.). New York: Springer.

Bondü, R., & Scheithauer, H. (2009). Aktuelle Ansätze zur Prävention von School Shootings in Deutschland. Praxis der Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie, 58, 685–701.

Brown, B., & Merritt, R. (2002). No easy answers: The truth behind death at Columbine. New York: Lantern.

Larkin, R. W. (2007). Comprehending columbine. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Larkin, R. W. (2009). The Columbine legacy: Rampage shootings as political acts. The American Behavioral Scientist, 52(9), 1309–1326.

Milner, M., Jr. (2006). Freaks, geeks, and cool kids: American teenagers, schools, and the culture of consumption. New York: Routledge.

Pellegrini, A. D. (2001). The roles of dominance and bullying in the development of early heterosexual relationships. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 2(2/3), 63–73.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


17
Oct 16

Police Investigations and High Stake Liars

Most police officers think avoidance of eye contact and fidgety movements are hallmark signs of a liar (Vrij & Mann, 2001). However, these are actually signs of nervousness (Vrij, 2000). Vrij (2000) has studied behaviors of liars, and based upon a review of the literature, has concluded that liars actually do not tend to fidget nervously–instead they become unnaturally still. And what’s more, eye contact has nothing to do with lying at all. In a study by Vrij, Mann, and Bull (2002), the researchers analyzed videotapes of police investigations of crimes in which the suspect lied about some aspect of the case. Thus, the researchers had an opportunity to observe liars in action, in a real, high-stake situation, where getting caught lying would lead to a conviction. The researchers hypothesized that the high stake liars would demonstrate not signs of nervousness, but instead signs of cognitive load and attempted behavioral control.

The suspects in this case were being investigated for various offenses, including theft, rape, and murder. Their interviews were videotaped for an hour, and their stories were corroborated or debunked by the use of forensic evidence, so as to catch both their truth telling and lie telling behavior on tape. Objective, independent observers coded the videotape for eight behaviors, namely: gaze aversion, blinking, head movements, self-manipulations, illustrators, hand/finger movements, speech disturbances, and pauses. Inter-rater reliability was calculated and found to be sufficient.

The researchers found two significant results of their study. Firstly, the suspects blinked less while lying, and secondly, the suspects paused for longer periods of times when lying, both behaviors that are signs of cognitive load. Though this is a post-hoc inference, it is quite plausible given that the suspects had to fabricate stories as to fit in with what the investigators already knew. Quite opposed to the idea that most police officers have, that suspects who are lying display nervousness (of which blinking more is a sign), the suspects blinked less while lying. Interestingly, the tendency to blink a lot while nervous has been called the Nixon-effect, as per Tecce (1992), who calculated that Nixon blinked 50 times PER MINUTE during his resignation address.

While many police officers believe that there is a typical kind of lying behavior, the researchers found that there were large individual differences in lie behavior. Therefore, police investigators are recommended to establish changes from baseline readings obtained from the same suspect. According to the researchers, the most reliable indicator of lying is a departure from what is normal behavior in the suspect.

References:

Mann, S., Vrij, A., & Bull, R. (2002). Suspects, lies, and videotape: An analysis of authentic high-stake liars. Law and human behavior, 26(3), 365-376.

Tecce, J. J. (1992). Psychology, physiology and experimental. McGraw-Hill. Yearbook of Science and Fechnology, 375-377.

Vrij, A. (2000). Detecting lies and deceit: The psychology of lying and implications for professional practice. Wiley.

Vrij, A., & Mann, S. (2001). Who killed my relative? Police officers’ ability to detect real-life high-stake lies. Psychology, Crime and Law, 7(1-4), 119-132.

 

 

 


08
Oct 16

Culture: Hofstede, Individualism, and Collectivism

Let me start by giving a brief overview of my background. I consider myself a fairly multicultural person: I was born in a city in India, moved to suburban Detroit a year after, lived there for 10 years, then moved back to India, and then went to college in a town near Philadelphia for a couple of years.

In my journey across the world and through life, I have come in touch with the dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural taxonomy—in particular, individualism and collectivism—the worlds of the western, individualistic United States, and the eastern, collectivistic India. In this blog, I’d like to talk a bit about culture and self-identity, as per Hofstede’s dimension of individualism/collectivism, and give some insights from cultural psychology about the pervasive effects of culture.

Culture shapes self-concept, as thoroughly explained in a paper by Markus and Kitayama (1991). In individualistic cultures, the self is independent, with emphasis on individual goals over collective goals, and value placed on self-reliance and distinctiveness. There is importance given to standing out, whereas in collectivistic cultures, where the self is interdependent, there is importance given to fitting in. There is emphasis on collective goals, and close relationships and group membership are valued.

One’s upbringing is thoroughly influenced by the cultural psychology of caregivers, or ethnotheories, as per Super and Harkness (1986). Whereas in western, individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on independence from the parent, in eastern, collectivistic cultures, the emphasis is on the sense of oneness and cohesion, and the promotion of dependence between parent and child. Competence in individualistic cultures is defined in terms of behaviors associated with individuation, such as exploration, autonomy, efficacy, and self-expression. In collectivistic cultures, however, competence is more a question of social harmony, interdependence, emotion monitoring, and control. Expressing yourself in collectivistic cultures is often discouraged.

In individualistic cultures, parenting is a child-led task wherein the goals are autonomy and independence. Parents use praise and promote self-enhancement and place emphasis on happiness and personal satisfaction. In collectivistic cultures, parenting is more traditional, akin to training (jiao xun), with the goal being that of interdependence. Parents use criticism, and emphasize self-improvement and achievement, as personal achievement is a reflection of the family’s investment and effort (Heine, 2011).

Fiske (1991) looked at family structures across the dimension of individualism and collectivism, and found that Western, individualistic families are more egalitarian in nature, with emphasis on equality among all members and individual rights and privileges. In the East, however, collectivistic families are more hierarchical in nature, with emphasis on authority, tradition, prestige, protection, and care. Everyone in the family hierarchy needs to be aware of their roles and obligations. Family members who are higher in rank have more prestige and privileges, but the ones lower in rank are more entitled to protection and care.

Even emotions are affected by the dimension of individualism and collectivism. According to a study by Wang (2001), individualistic Americans see emotions as an important aspect of the self, and are elaborated upon as a way of facilitating individuality. Collectivistic Chinese, however, see emotions as a consequence of social interactions, and emphasize others’ roles in emotional expression. Emotions reinforce proper behavioral conduct and sense of connectedness within groups.

When it comes to love, there are different theories prevalent across cultures. In India, where collectivism is prevalent, marriage is arranged by parents based on socioeconomic class and religion, as opposed to marriage being agreed upon by the individuals based on their personality traits and attributes, as is common in individualistic cultures. Love in India is a duty, a feeling that blooms from the obligations of a familial alliance. In the west, love is more voluntary, and therefore more individualistic, with emphasis on the feelings that come about within each individual (Heine, 2011). The National Healthy Marriage Resource Center observed differences in Eastern collectivistic concepts of love and marriage and Western individualistic concepts, and found that love in the east is seen as an indissoluble bond, whereas in the west, love and marriage are more of a contract.

I could go on and on about how much culture influences us, but I’d like to end with a note on ethnic identity in multicultural individuals. It’s confusing to be brought up one way, and then live in a society that operates in a completely opposite way—there is a lot of psychosocial conflict that takes place, both within the individual and between family members who have conflicting cultural values. As globalization increases, there is more and more need for cultural awareness and acceptance of differences—without this understanding of diversity, relationships in society are going to be very difficult indeed!

References

Fiske, A. P. (1991). Structures of social life: The four elementary forms of human relations: Communal sharing, authority ranking, equality matching, market pricing. Free Press.

Heine, S. J. (2011). Cultural psychology (2nd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.

Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.

Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological review98(2), 224.

Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International journal of behavioral development9(4), 545-569.

Wang, Q. (2001). “Did you have fun?”: American and Chinese mother–child conversations about shared emotional experiences. Cognitive Development,16(2), 693-715.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 


07
Oct 16

Changing Health Behavior: Smoking

One thing I’d really like to do this year is give up smoking. Now, how can I use Applied Social Psychology to help me in this resolution?

One way is definitely by reading up on theories of changing health behavior and applying them to my external and internal situation. Therefore, I’ll use this blog post to discuss the health belief model, the theory of planned behavior, and the stages of change model, in the context of my resolution of giving up smoking.

First, the health belief model (Janz & Becker, 1984; Rosenstock, 1974). What are my beliefs related to the various components of the health belief model? Well, first of all, I do have an interest in staying fit and healthy, and I’d like to avoid getting cancer if possible. These are my general health values, the first component of the health belief model.

Secondly, I believe that smoking is a strong causative factor of cancer. As a smoker, I am more susceptible to cancer—therefore my perceived susceptibility to illness is high. Although I’d like to believe I’ll be one of those smokers who live to 100, I know that it is highly unlikely. I also know that cancer is deadly, and painful, and highly detrimental all around. Therefore, I perceive the severity of the illness to be quite high as well. I also think that giving up on smoking will reduce my chances of cancer—as yet, no one in my family has gotten cancer (touch wood), but no one in my family smokes either. If I give up smoking, I have a high expectation that I will be able to avoid cancer.

Now, where I do run into problems is my level of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977a). I do not think I have what it takes to give up smoking. I have tried before, and have failed miserably. I don’t think I can give up smoking. I use cigarettes to regulate my anxiety and stress, and without cigarettes, I really don’t think I’ll be able to manage those issues, no matter how much therapy I pay for. This is a considerable barrier to my giving up smoking, even though the above-outlined benefits are many. My cue to action, which is my parents’ and peers’ heavy encouragement to stop smoking, is just not strong enough to overcome this one big barrier that looms in the way of my giving up smoking.

Next, let’s use the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) to examine my wish to stop smoking. According to this model, there are three factors that affect my planned behavior: attitude towards behavior, subjective norms, and perceived control. My attitude toward smoking is pretty clear—it’s harmful, and I need to stop. Thus, I have a positive attitude towards stopping smoking. Subjective norms regarding smoking are a little complex—while my parents and some of my peers disapprove of my smoking, my best friend and I typically smoke together on a daily basis. It’s our bonding time, and I would be loath to give that up. My perceived control over my behavior, which is modulated by my perceived self-efficacy, is, to be honest, quite low. I’m pretty thoroughly addicted to smoking, and experience withdrawal symptoms, both psychological and physiological when I don’t smoke.

According to the theory of planned behavior, my chances of giving up smoking, though I have the wish to do so, are relatively low, given my low perceived control over my behavior. Norman, Corner, and Bell (1999) have found that smoking cessation is only likely when there is perceived control over the behavior—the odds are against me.

Finally, let’s look at the stages of change model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983, 1986). I used to be in the precontemplation stage of this model, because I had no intention of giving up smoking. But lately, with pressure from my family and healthcare providers, I’ve been considering giving it up more and more. So now, I am in the contemplation stage of the model. I do intend to make a change in my behavior over the next six months—hopefully I don’t end up staying in this stage for years, like many other smokers. I hope to transition to the preparation stage of this model, wherein I cut down on my smoking in preparation of stopping altogether. It may be that when I stop altogether (the action phase) I will experience relapse and go back to the contemplation phase, but I would like to make it to the maintenance stage, where I’ve gone six months without smoking.

Will I make it? We’ll just have to see!

References

Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.

Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 191–215.

Janz, N. K., & Becker, M. H. (1984). The health belief model: A decade later. Health Education Quarterly, 11, 1–47.

Norman, P., Conner, M., & Bell, R. (1999). The theory of planned behavior and smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 18, 89–94.

Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 390–395.

Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1986). Toward a comprehensive model of change. In W. R. Miller & N. Heather (Eds.), Treating addictive behaviors: Processes of change (pp. 3–27). New York: Plenum Press.

Rosenstock, I. M. (1974). Historical origins of the health belief model. Health Education Monographs, 2, 328–335.

 

 

 


05
Oct 16

Pyramid Schemes and the American Dream

Pyramid schemes are a growing problem in the United States but why do people fall for them? What is so alluring about these so-called business opportunities? I would argue that the idea’s presented in most pyramid schemes that attract so many people are the opportunities to ‘be your own boss’ and to work on your own time at your leisure. Many of these schemes present the idea that the amount of money you make is in your own control based on how much work you want to do. First let us discuss, what is a pyramid scheme?

A pyramid scheme is typically presented as a reputable company (I had one approach me under the umbrella of CITI, a multi-faceted and well known bank). The company makes itself look and sound like a successful, multi-level marketing program (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission). The typical pyramid scheme will require money up-front from the participant, or employee. The employee is then promised good money in return for signing other people up for the scheme (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission). According the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, pyramid schemes typically have no actual product and use the money from new recruits to pay the older recruits.

The world we live in today is busy and full of adults who have very little time and very little resources. Many of whom have more debt than their current income will allow. With this in mind, it is easy to see why so many people are duped into a pyramid scheme. A pyramid scheme promises high pay outs in a quick turn-around time. You want extra money, and fast right? A pyramid scheme offers a business model that might allow you to quit your current job and make even more money, while working for yourself. You would love to be your own boss right? How about all of the extra time you will have to spend with your kids? All of these promises are very alluring versus the lifestyle the typical American lives today. Does it sound too good to be true? As a general rule of thumb, it probably is.

Pyramid schemes are often violating federal laws however it is difficult to challenge these companies once you have joined. According to the 5th circuit court, “You’d have to be either dumb or venal to volunteer for the bottom rows of a pyramid scheme” (Frankel 2016). The federal government offers the following signs that the company you are looking into might be a pyramid scheme: no genuine product or service, promises of high returns in a short time, easy money, no demonstrated revenue from retail sales, buy-in required, complex commission structure, emphasis on recruiting (U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission 2013).

This brings us to the real issue plaguing many American’s today, time and money. The American dream of the olden days has been forgotten. Hard work is a thing of the past. People want the most profit out of the smallest amount of work. Why is this? An applied psychologist might be able to theorize that the economy shift has created this new mindset. The rise in monthly household expenses with little rise in income has made it difficult for families to live with only one working parent and thus time with family has fallen by the wayside. I believe a serious change must be made in the American economy in order to get back the American dream that this county was built upon.

 

Frankel, Alison (2016). En Banc 5th Circuit asks: Why do people buy into pyramid schemes? Reuters Online. Accessed 5 October 2016. http://blogs.reuters.com/alison-frankel/2016/10/04/en-banc-5th-circuit-asks-why-do-people-buy-into-pyramid-schemes/

U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (2013). Accessed 5 October 2016. https://www.sec.gov/answers/pyramid.htm


27
Sep 16

New POTUS job requirement: “A presidential look”

What, exactly, comprises the “presidential look” that according to Republican candidate Donald Trump, Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton lacks? Although he demurs when asked for specifics, stating “I’m just talking about general,” (Parker, 2016), it can be concluded based on his former comments about women in general and former female political opponent Carly Fiorina in particular that there are gender politics at play in his remarks (Estepa, 2015). Unfortunately, Trump is not alone in his doubts about whether someone who looks like Clinton (i.e. female) would be able to project the aura of authority the office of the Presidency requires. The uncomfortable truth is that hidden sexism operates in our society, and many of us are uneasy with seeing women in a powerful role.

Penn State psychology professor Terri Vescio explains the gender bias that operates in the political sphere as a “damned if you do and damned if you don’t” situation, in which “the more female politicians are seen as striving for power, the less they’re trusted and the more moral outrage gets directed at them…[because] if you’re perceived as competent, you’re not perceived as warm. But if you’re liked and trusted, you’re not seen as competent” (Bush, 2016). This catch-22 for women in politics (and in business) undermines their support among both men and women, and because much of it is implicit bias, it is often unrecognized. For example, even within the Obama administration female staffers often had to struggle to make their voices heard until they struck upon a strategy of “amplification” whereby they mutually drew attention to each other’s significant contributions in order ensure that the proper party received credit for the idea (Eilperin, 2016). I point this out in order to be clear that sexism is an issue that transcends political party affiliation, and therefore we all stand to lose out if valuable contributions from women are silenced by oppression either blatant or subtle.

Hostile sexism is easier to recognize for what it is, but there is another side to sexism that is more insidious: benevolent sexism. For example, I would describe myself as a feminist, but when I took the “Are You Sexist” quiz offered by PBS.org, my results indicated that I hold a fair degree of subtle gender prejudice:

screen-shot-2016-09-26-at-4-06-57-pmI encourage you to click the link above and see your own results – you might be surprised at what you learn about yourself. Anyone familiar with the Harvard implicit bias tests will recall that we don’t have to hold explicitly negative beliefs about others to be influenced by bias. Our implicit beliefs can lead us to behave in a manner which is discriminatory while we simultaneously think of ourselves as fair and considerate.

When you combine elements of hostile and benevolent sexism you get ambivalent sexism. We can see the interplay of these elements in Donald Trump’s statements about women, both positive and negative. Recently, professor Peter Glick, who along with Susan Fiske proposed the tripartite understanding of sexism stated, “Trump’s views are consistent with conventional ideologies that view women as wonderful…but with a catch” (Glick, 2016).

“Heterosexual men’s intimate interdependence on women (as objects of desire, wives, and mothers), fosters a ‘benevolent’ side to sexism. Benevolent sexism encompasses genuine warmth toward women, but only when they support rather than challenge men’s status, power, and privileges” (Glick, 2016).

Regardless of which candidate we choose to vote for in the upcoming election, I hope that we will all pay closer attention to our own assumptions about gender and competence. Often we hold women to different standards than men without realizing that we are doing so. In light of what I’ve learned in in this course (particularly Swim and Hyer’s (1991) research regarding women’s responses to sexist comments), I will not only strive to resist social pressure to silence myself, but will also do more to support other women as they work to make their voices heard. If enough men and women do the same, perhaps we can arrive at a point sometime in the future when saying that a female political candidate doesn’t look “presidential” will fail to cause some of us to nod in agreement.

Resources:

Allen, J. (2016, July 21). Anti-Hillary Clinton rhetoric has become dangerous and violent. Retrieved September 27, 2016, from American, http://www.rushhourdaily.com/anti-hillary-clinton-rhetoric-become-dangerous-violent/

Bush, D. The hidden sexism that could sway the election. Retrieved September 26, 2016, from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/features/hidden-sexism/

Eilperin, J. (2016, September 13). White house women want to be in the room where it happens. Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/powerpost/wp/2016/09/13/white-house-women-are-now-in-the-room-where-it-happens/

Estepa, J. (2015, September 10). Donald Trump on Carly Fiorina: “Look at that face!” . Retrieved from http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2015/09/10/trump-fiorina-look-face/71992454/

Glick, P. (2016). Benevolent sexism and the art of the deal. Retrieved September 27, 2016, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-enquiry/201609/benevolent-sexism-and-the-art-the-deal

Parker, A. (2016, September 7). Donald Trump says Hillary Clinton Doesn’t have “a presidential look.” Politics. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/07/us/politics/donald-trump-says-hillary-clinton-doesnt-have-a-presidential-look.html

Santhanam, L. (2016, August 10). Are you sexist? Take this quiz. . Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/are-you-sexist-take-this-quiz/

 


24
Oct 15

The Agenda of the Media

Many of us look to the media for the latest political or social news. I know that I love listening to NPR on my way to work, or to have CNN running in the background when I am at home trying to multitask! But how much of the information is based on objective content? Part of why we sometimes tune in is because we want to know what Wolf Blitzer thinks about a given situation, we want to know if we should agree or disagree with the rulings of major court cases. So, the media tells us, the media uses key works  and images that give us a scandal spin on the story. When Justin Biber was arrested for drunk driving, they showed his mug shot. First of all, that was not news worthy, but they could have shown us a picture of him from his last concert or from him in a suit, but they chose to add drama and shape the way we feel about him.

If we look at the Bengazi hearings, we see another example of agenda setting, this time it is the government that wants to shine light on something. The conservatives are dragging Secretary Clinton into the lime light with more then 7 hearings on the same issue and there has not been a result. It started out being an investigation into what happened, then turned into finding out if Clinton was negligent, and now it seems that they are just looking to pin something on her. Perhaps, the conservative party wants to tarnish her image with the American people for the 2016 election.

Planed Parenthood, school shooters, and many other incidences have been brought to the media and the people that we rely on for unbiased reporting of the facts, give us what they want us to see.

The government has a saying when they don’t want the public to know something happened but they still need to report it in press meetings, and that is “Send it out with the Trash.” The Whitehouse delivers any bad news on Fridays at the end of the business day, that is considered the trash, because the press corps is ready to go home and listeners are getting ready for the weekend. What goes out on Fridays is typically an update on something that took place during the week, it is never something that the Whitehouse really wants the American people to hear, because it’s not too important. This is another way to shape the public opinion; by sending this information out on a day that people aren’t paying attention, we are again, taking advantage of an opportunity. So when there is something embarrassing that needs to go out, they can say that they sent it out.

My final thought is about satire or reporting. One of my favorite shows is the Trever Noah show. He is funny and he does bring up some very good points about politics and social behavior. But again, it is tailored to be funny and to be satire and not real reporting. He doesn’t go out and conduct interviews, he uses clips from other news sites and we never really see the whole story. What happened to real reporting, where we just get the facts and nothing else? Would we tune in to that? Have we ever been in a place where reporting was unbiased?

 


03
Oct 15

Mind If I Join You?

I love lists. I especially love “to-do” lists – not because I want to have many tasks, but because I get a certain thrill from crossing something off of my “to-do” list. I feel accomplished and a great deal of satisfaction comes over me. I find that this is consistent with my equal love for organizers. Looking at photos in the Crate & Barrel and Ikea catalogs makes me very happy. They often show idyllic office workspaces in imaginary homes. There are baskets tagged with pieces of slate and labeled in chalk for things like “Bills”, “School”, “Receipts”, etc.  I covet those offices and maybe if I win the lottery I will be able to live out my dream of a perfectly coordinated and organized workspace.  If I dig a bit deeper into why I like those images, I can see that I really prefer things to be ordered over things that are chaotic. If I look a little further and peel back the onion of my psyche even more, I can see that I often search for not only where to put things, but where to put myself. Where do I fit in?

Social psychology has developed theories about group dynamics and how people relate within a group. Social Identity Theory involves both how a person interacts as a result of their individuality (their Personal Identity), and how the individual interacts based on their awareness of their position within a group (their Social Identity) (The Pennsylvania State University World Campus, L6 P4, 2015).  Yet a different theory is that of Social Dominance. This theory suggests that humans naturally form different hierarchies across cultural and socioeconomic boundaries and that those at the top of each hierarchy gain a preponderance of the good that comes to the group (Sidanius & Pratto, 2012).  As such, those at the top of the group are eager to keep things the same within their hierarchy. After all, the top group people reap great rewards and benefits in the form of things like wealth, better education, modern conveniences, etc. Interestingly, research shows that those in the low group population within a hierarchy will accept their position within the group. The low group individuals see the value in being in the low group of a dominant hierarchy over being in the top group of a lesser hierarchy (The Pennsylvania State University World Campus L6 P5, 2015).

Thinking back to my family of origin, I can see that our roles and our “proper places” were imposed on us mostly by our parents. I am the oldest of three. My parents were careful not to assign a favorite, but each of us interacted with our parents differently. I was the peacemaker, my brother was the instigator/rebel and my sister was the free spirit. The hierarchy was clear, my parents were at the top of the pyramid and my siblings and I were the subordinates. I knew my role and where I fit in the group.  As I moved into adolescence and high school, I became part of more groups, both socially and academically. High school is where the group delineations were most clear – complete with labels such as “Goths”, “Techs”, “Band Geeks”, “Jocks”, “Richies”, etc.  Within those cliques, there were pecking orders and hierarchies. For example, since the Jocks were more popular than the Band Geeks at my school, if you were low in the hierarchy of the Band Geeks, you were exponentially less popular than the Jocks. I was a Band Geek (and I still am – but now I get paid to be one!).  As a sophomore, it was clear that the seniors were in charge of the group – even going so far as to pass along duties like sorting music and cleaning the practice field after rehearsals so that they could spend more time socializing with their peers. It was easy to tolerate the grunt work because I knew that I wouldn’t remain a sophomore forever. One day, I would be a senior and the power would shift.  Fortunately for me, Hollywood created a movie that perfectly (yes, perfectly) described my high school experience: (warning: this clip contains some graphic language)

 

(Hughes, 1985)

Little did I know, these cliques would linger into adulthood. They changed names and appearances – the cliques became hierarchies. As I got older, I could see that everywhere I turned, there were more dividing lines. I could see it between people of wealth and people with less financial stability. I could see it between those of certain ethnic backgrounds and those that identified as Caucasian. I could see it between upper management and entry-level employees. I could see it between those in political power and those that were oppressed. I could see it between those that follow a certain spiritual path and those that have a different experience of human existence. In all of those groups, some individuals rise to the top (the in-group) and some are rank-and-file members (the out-group). At first, it was difficult to determine where I belonged. The world is a big place and how would I determine which clique or hierarchy I would join? I came to realize though that no matter what hierarchy or clique I was in, I had a choice. I could choose to pursue the in-group status or remain in the out-group. If neither of those choices appealed to me, I could start my own group. Social dominance is only as limiting as you make it.  It is essential to determine your own path, regardless of the hierarchy to which you belong, for that is where you will find the most joy.

Hughes, J. (Director). (1985). The Breakfast Club [Motion Picture].

Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (2012). Social Dominance Thoery. In P. A. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins, Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume Two (pp. 418-438). London: Sage.

The Pennsylvania State University World Campus L6 P5. (2015). Lesson 6: Intergroup Relations: Social Dominance Theory. Retrieved from PSYCH424: Applied Social Psychology: https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/fa15/psych424/001/content/07_lesson/05_page.html

The Pennsylvania State University World Campus, L6 P4. (2015). Lesson 6: Intergroup Relations Social Identity Theory. Retrieved from PSYCH424: Applied Social Psychology: https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/fa15/psych424/001/content/07_lesson/04_page.html

 


27
Sep 15

Talk Among Yourselves…

Talk therapy had never been something that interested me. I certainly assigned the stigma of “only crazy people go to therapy” to the concept. But when the wheels came off the proverbial bus, I knew I had to do something to save myself and to save my marriage. Therapy saved me in many ways. It also introduced me to the version of myself I had been missing for a very long time.

Getting good grades came very easily to me all the way through high school. I was active in school activities and teachers appreciated my enthusiasm for school and my willingness to participate and engage in active discussion. I made it seem effortless. Unfortunately, I was successfully painting myself into a corner without realizing it. Assignments were completed, grades were given and everyone (including myself) thought that I would be a great college student. Unfortunately, the effortlessness of high school didn’t prepare me for the Socratic method preferred by most college instructors in the late ‘80s/early ‘90s. College became a place of great anxiety for me. I was constantly trying to figure out how to please everyone and to figure out where I fit in. I struggled with a pervasive fear that the curtain would be pulled back and Dorothy (my college) would find out that the Great and Powerful Oz (me) was just a sham. In hindsight, I can clearly see the markings of a form of social anxiety disorder.

 

(Fleming, 1939)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders has described social anxiety disorder as a fear of embarrassment and/or fear of looking poorly in front of others (Social Anxiety Institute, 2015).  Here’s where I was a blend – getting up in front of people to speak in terms of a presentation, or getting up in front of the college marching band of 300 people didn’t faze me. But when I got into a smaller classroom where I felt unprepared or where I was concerned I would look stupid, I became a nervous wreck. I couldn’t speak up for myself. I couldn’t ask for help. I was paralyzed into inaction.  As a result, things got out of hand and I was asked by the college to please not return (translation: I failed out of school).

Fast-forward 15 years and I was a woman without a direction. I was married but I was in a constant state of insecurity. I was overweight, but didn’t do anything about it, and then complained when I felt like I was being ostracized for it. Leary and Kowalski (1995) developed a self-presentation theory with regard to social anxiety. The researchers concluded that individuals want to control public perceptions, because that will determine how others treat the individuals (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).  Bingo! Not only was I afraid that people would judge or criticize me, but I felt out of control if I could not somehow manage the environment or the perceptions. It created a great amount of self-doubt. On the outside, many people didn’t know I was struggling with this. I was able to socialize and in fact, I over-compensated and wouldn’t say no to any type of outing or event. Burying my fears and anxieties turned out to be the worst treatment. My husband became tired of my constant second-guessing of his feelings for me and it became clear that if I didn’t get help, I would be alone.

My therapist is a kind man and a listener that doesn’t seem to forget anything. He never told me his diagnosis of me. He would just encourage me to come back week after week. He would listen thoughtfully. Oftentimes, he wouldn’t say much at all during our appointments. When he did? Oh boy! He would ask me a pointed question or just say, “It must feel awful worrying about everyone else all the time”.  And each time he said it, I would drop back in my chair and breathe. Managing everyone else was not my job. I had to learn to listen to myself, figure out what I wanted and who I wanted to be. It was in that chair, staring at his diplomas from Bryn Mawr and The University of Pennsylvania that I realized that I wanted to finish my degree. It was in that chair that I realized that I could be happy with myself and not concern myself with the opinions of others to the point of inaction. It was in that chair that I found a love for myself and an inner peace – the kind of which I had never known. You don’t have to be crazy to begin therapy. In fact, I kind of think you’re crazy NOT to try it.

 

Fleming, V. (Director). (1939). The Wizard of Oz [Motion Picture].

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (Second ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Social Anxiety Institute. (2015). DSM-5 Definition of Social Anxiety Disorder. Retrieved from Social Anxiety Institute: https://socialanxietyinstitute.org/dsm-definition-social-anxiety-disorder


08
Apr 15

The Relationship Between Caregivers Should be the Focus Point of Family

In everyday life, boy meets girl, or in today’s world, boy meets boy, or girl meets girl. Regardless of the circumstance people meet everyday and decide to make a go at a relationship and eventually a family. Family is important in the United States, although I maintain we don’t do family friendly very well as I mentioned in a previous post, but still family is important and many parents will make the children the center of the family, when in reality it should be the relationship itself that is the center of the family. This may seem to fly in the face of all reason and what we know traditionally, but the reality is children require that structure and the modeling of a healthy relationship by appropriate and positive role models in order to be successful later in their own relationships.

family

It is important to model the behavior you want your children to learn because they are watching you all the time and they look up to you more than anyone else in their little world. Hence, if we want our children to have successful relationships, then we need to model that.  Even if the relationship ends, as far too many do, children are looking to us to see how we manage the break up. Imagine the effect a chaotic environment has on a child’s developing brain and emotions. Parents are yelling and screaming and even physically abusive with one another. We know from Albert Bandura’s Bo-Bo doll experiment (Macleod, 20011) that when children witness violent behavior, they will imitate it. One and one make two, so the people I love the most in the world are hitting each other, so that must be the way things are done.

arguing

Going back to Albert Bandura and his social learning theory, it states that we learn from observing one another in different social settings. A child observes, or pays attention to affection and thoughtful gestures between the parents and caregivers and they make note of the behavior, they retain it somewhere in their memory until such a time as it may become useful to them. The child then does something thoughtful for the parents and is in turn rewarded with warmth and affection which motivates the child to continue being thoughtful and affectionate.

afection

Parenting education, early intervention, and good prevention programs are needed to address any problems with understanding the best dynamic approach for your family in regards to focusing on the relationship between caregivers. Look in your community to see if there are any good parenting classes available, many of them are free or low cost. Also, check with your child’s school to see if they will be offering any parenting programs. Ideally, you want to look for a program that allows interaction between the parent(s) and children, the goal being to improve understanding how important it is to model a healthy relationship with your children and to increase outcomes for children. Once you find a program that suits your need, actually commit to or carry through with attending the class. You will be able to evaluate the success of your commitment by noting your improved relationship and your happy, well adjusted children.

hugfamily

References

McLeod, S. A. (2011). Bobo Doll Experiment. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html

 


05
Apr 15

It Takes A Village

It’s a cliché, I know, but cliché’s are cliché’s for a reason, because there is truth behind them. Society today has moved so far from a village mind-set, we all walk around in a bubble of isolation. As a parent, the fact that it’s not a village anymore makes finding good childcare very challenging, and the fact is, this country is not family friendly, despite what politicians say. The challenges of juggling work, school, illnesses, and any other myriad of emergencies that come up in families are not looked on with much sympathy from employers. There is nothing more heartbreaking than trying to decide if your child is well enough to send to school, or risk displeasing your employer by missing work. Finding childcare for summer break is also challenging and a financial hardship for some, as well as maternity/paternity leave is an absolute joke. The United States is the only industrialized country in the world that does not mandate paid maternity/paternity leave (Pew Research).

mombaby

In this day and age of stimulus overload and filtering out distractions, and living in isolated bubbles, it is more important than ever to get back to villages and that sense of community, especially when it comes to caring for our children. We need to build a sense of community and come together as a village, while at the same time protect our individual rights. Individualism/collectivism theory is the theory that an individual has the right to control his own life, while collectivism states that we have no individual rights and that everything belongs to society as a whole. While certainly no one wants a collectivist society, not in the U.S where we protect our individual rights quite ferociously, but a tiny bit of collectivism might not be so bad.

community

The problem is lack of access to good, affordable childcare. Also, how to foster a family friendly environment in the work place, as well as create a sense of community, while retaining our individualism. I envision neighborhood co-ops where children can be dropped off close to home with other children they know in their neighborhood. I also see employers providing daycare in the place of employment, or allowing parents to bring children to work where appropriate. Other options or solutions would be to work from the home if possible or to allow employees to work flexible hours to accommodate for school and childcare needs. The goal is to provide better access to good, affordable childcare in a village or community type atmosphere, not necessarily in the physical sense, but in the ambient sense. We can encourage employers to consider on site childcare by discussing how the cost would be offset by employees having fewer sick days, and increased productivity.

happy workers

Program implementation would include hiring qualified childcare providers, and constructing or designating a place for the daycare center in the workplace. I believe in evaluating the success of this program, we will see better access to childcare, fewer sick days for employee’s, and better moral in the workplace with a corresponding rise in productivity, a stronger sense of community, as well as intact individuality. I know for me personally, the peace of mind I have when I know my child is being well taken care of is priceless.

 

 

 

 

 

References

http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/12/12/among-38-nations-u-s-is-the-holdout-when-it-comes-to-offering-paid-parental-leave/

 


11
Feb 15

Fear appeal backfire?

February 1, 2015 marked the date of the annual Super Bowl which is hallmarked by the best television commercials of the year.  The average cost for a 60-second spot was $8 million this year (Siltanen, 2014).  What companies chose to do with their time ranged from horses helping a lost puppy get home to a baby eating chips on a plane.  However, what one company did has been widely discussed on national news networks and social media sites.  Nationwide Insurance’s “Make Safe Happen” ad is being debated across the country for its attempt at what Lafreniere and Cramer (2012) call “fear appeal” (p.171).  The focus of this post will be the concept of fear appeal and its benefits and costs in attempting to change health-related behavior in the context of the Nationwide Super Bowl Ad, “Make Safe Happen.”

Persuasion is a type of social influence whereby a message, delivered via a medium such as television, newspaper ads, social media campaigns, etc. attempts to change beliefs or attitudes by appealing to a target audience (Lafreniere & Cramer, 2012).   In health psychology, persuasion is used to elicit behavior changes that foster a healthy and safe lifestyle (Lafreniere & Cramer).  Two types of persuasive appeals were identified by Lafreniere and Cramer: informational and fear.  The focus of this post will be fear appeals, which according to Lafreniere and Cramer, serve to draw attention to a particular subject matter by activating fears.  In the case of the Nationwide commercial (2015), an attempt was made to attract attention to the issue of preventable childhood injuries and deaths, and the safety concerns in the lives of children by drawing on fears of childhood death.

According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC, 2012), 1 in every 5 child deaths is the result of an injury.  The image below depicts the startling statistics of child injuries and deaths in the United States including a comparison to other industrialized nations (CDC).  From these statistics, it is apparent that Nationwide was attempting to attract attention to a legitimate health and safety problem. Yet, the commercial was not well-received by all viewers as evidenced by responses of condemnation (Eliason, 2015) and applause (Krugman & Cumpsty-Fowler, 2015) on social media and in the news.  These mixed results are not uncommon to fear appeal attempts (Lafreniere & Cramer, 2012).   Recent evidence from two meta-analyses revealed different results when assimilating evidence with one analysis reporting such inconsistent results the authors were unable to draw a definitive conclusion (Peters, et al., 2013) and the other suggesting alternatives to fear appeal in the face of insufficient evidence of efficacy  (Ruiter, et al., 2014).  These results seem contrary to those from Devos-Comby and Salovey as reported by Lafreniere and Cramer which concluded that the greater the fear response, the more likely the intention to change behavior will occur.  Large scale documentation linking fear appeal to actual behavior change is unclear (Lafreniere & Cramer; Ruiter, et al.; Peters, et al.).childinjury_580px

Lafreniere & Cramer (2012) caution that fear appeal can be risky as it may elicit a response of sadness from some.  Evidence of the sadness induced by the Nationwide commercial is all over the internet, including the LinkedIn blog post by Frank Eliason (2015), “Nationwide is More than a Downer” where Eliason discusses how the commercial provoked painful memories of his own experience with childhood death.  When negative emotions are activated by fear appeal the intended message can be blurred and not received as intended.

Lafreniere and Cramer (2012) suggest methods for ensuring optimal message delivery including: clearly conveying the link between unhealthy or unsafe behaviors and poor outcomes and healthy, safe behaviors with good outcomes, emphasizing the reality of the situation and that poor outcomes could happen to anyone, inclusion of a specific recommendation for behavior improvement to avoid negative consequences, emphasizing ease of making a behavioral change to reach intended goals and timing of the message. Nationwide (2015) adhered to some of these recommendations like making the message that unsafe practices could lead to child death very clear and emphasizing the truth of the situation.  However, other suggestions could have helped Nationwide obtain their goal of childhood health and safety awareness.  For instance, it is questionable whether the Super Bowl was the appropriate venue for such a serious ad.  With that being said, Nationwide knew it would have the attention of a huge audience and took advantage of the ability to reach the multitudes which leaves the topic up for debate.  According to Lafreniere and Cramer, when consequences seem more immediate fear appeals are more likely to elicit change.  However, when is the best time to raise awareness of preventable childhood death?  It would seem that with the statistics as they are, the sooner the better.  Additionally, Nationwide fell short on explicitly sharing ways to prevent childhood accidents aside from linking to their website on childhood health and safety.

Fear appeal is something that clearly has pitfalls and benefits when attempting to change behavior.  Caution is essential when attempting to use fear appeal as a tactic to improve health and safety. Whether the country loved the Nationwide commercial (2015) or thought it was tasteless, one thing is certain, it got America talking about a huge problem impacting those nearest and dearest to us, our children.  Fear appeal backfire? Maybe, maybe not.

-Windy Alonso

 

References:

Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (2012). Vital signs – Child injury. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/VitalSigns/childinjury/

Eliason, F. (2015). Nationwide is more than a downer. Retrieved from https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/nationwide-more-than-downer-frank-eliason?midToken=AQE2FWFUp4O03w&trk=eml-b2_content_ecosystem_digest-recommended_articles-172-null&fromEmail=fromEmail&ut=2BQ8XxKKDL3CE1

Krugman, S. & Cumpsty-Fowler, C. (2015). Nationwide: on kid’s side. Retrieved from http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bs-ed-nationwide-commercial-20150210-story.html

Lafreniere, K. & Cramer, K. (2012). Applying social psychology to health, in Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed.) Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Nationwide Insurance (2015). Make safe happen.  Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dKUy-tfrIHY

Peters, G., Ruiter, R. & Yok, G. (2012). Threatening communication: a critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory. Health Psychology Review. 7(Suppl1): S8-S31.

Ruiter, R., Kessels, L., Peters, G. & Yok, G. (2014). Sixty years of fear appeal research: Current state of the evidence. International Journal of Psychology. 49(2): 63-70.

Siltanen, R. (2014). Yes, a Super Bowl ad really is worth $4 million. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/onmarketing/2014/01/29/yes-a-super-bowl-ad-really-is-worth-4-million/


10
Nov 14

Redefining core beliefs just in time

Crossfit: Redefining my core beliefs

By: Robin

It’s been almost two years since I started my Crossfit journey. I stalked our local box on Facebook for a month until I finally had the guts to go in…I was so excited for this new fitness adventure but little did I know my life was about to change, I was about to gain the mental strength I needed to handle one of life’s tornados – Divorce. Crossfit gave me I was always athletic and loved sports but what I lacked was something that affects every aspect of our lives, affected every aspect of mine – Self-esteem. My lack of self-esteem was rooted in my personality stemming from uninvolved parenting style and an unhealthy set of beliefs. Self-esteem, confidence, good psychological health, no matter what term we use, our mental and emotional state of mind is the driving force behind our decisions.

Here comes my life raft.

Crossfit is “the sport of fitness” and defines fitness as increased work capacity across broad time and modal domains. Capacity is the ability to do real work, which is measurable using the basic terms of physics (force, distance and time). Life is unpredictable (much more so than sport) so real world fitness must be broad and not specialized, both in terms of duration and type of effort (time and modal domains). (Glassman, 2002) This brief definition doesn’t do justice to the overhaul and magnitude to which it changes lives. Crossfit also uses the term “functional fitness” relating to its practice and it means training and strengthening the muscles you need for challenges in life. It could be moving a couch, carrying your kids, health care workers lifting/moving patients, any physically or mentally taxing job, and even our own personal internal situations, the list could go on.
The workouts are tough, sometimes they are a short but intense 3 minuets and others are endurance focused at 20-30 minuets….and with both there are times you think you might actually die or that would rather give up than endure the pain. The amazing part is what is actually happening in those moments. You know you can’t give up…because (social learning theory) the people around you aren’t giving up, they are dripping with sweat, breathing heavy, and fighting….giving this workout all they’ve got. It’s in those last few moments of the workout when you want to quit or die that you produce mental strength to override that voice telling you to quit. Then, the timer goes off, the unpredictable, perceived stressor aka the workout that was unknown until you got to your Crossfit box that day and you are on the ground, feeling relief, it was painful but you didn’t quit, you might throw up but you are still alive and slightly stronger than you were yesterday. You are now more conditioned and better prepared to face the next unknown challenge, more confident in your abilities because you know you’ll be okay regardless of the pain, in fact…you begin to believe in yourself, you develop this understanding that fear doesn’t have to paralyze you, it can exist in your space but no longer control you. It’s how you perceive the fear and stressors, your belief that allow you to cope with stress.
The mental strength I gained from Crossfit is directly correlated to the fundamentals that it defines as fitness and how Social psychology is applied to health, well-being, and coping with stress. It changed me all the way down to my core.

Perceived Stressors of Life ( Schneider, Gruman, Coutts 2013)

1. Life is unpredictable and uncontrollable; the events related to divorce are unpredictable and perceived negatively for even more added stress.
2. Task(s) are large and or overloaded – The tasks associated to divorce are time consuming, require large amounts of energy, and are physically and emotionally draining.
3. Events are vague – The events, tasks, and outcomes of divorce are all vague. They take time and to figure out what needs to be done and what life transitions need to go in order.

Perceived Stressors of Crossfit (also the foundation)

1. Constantly Varied daily workout (unpredictable)– Work -outs are varied in movements, pace, intensity, and time.
2. Social motivation comes from the group setting to create a positive yet intense physical and emotionally demanding work out (tasks).
3. Approaching each workout and deciding how you will accomplish the tasks are intense. You could go fast and burn out before you get all the reps done or you could start too slow and not be able to finish but still have energy left….Ahhhh! This is the worst. Knowing you have more to give but there is no more time. Big life lesson ehh?

We all have a different perspective on stress and it comes from the beliefs we have in ourselves and our abilities to face any given situation. We need mental and emotional strength to handle the uncontrollable and unforgiving situations life gives us…like divorce and a solid belief system/perspective on our abilities in order to make good decisions. Crossfit has taught me; to believe in myself, understand my weaknesses, my reactions to fear, and how to be stong no matter what is happening, and that sometimes being strong means believing in yourself to not give up.

References

Glassman, G. (2002, April 1). What is CrossFit? Retrieved from http://journal.crossfit.com/2002/04/foundations.tpl

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: Sage.

"I can do this, I am strong, I will do this."

“I can do this, I am strong, I will do this.”


21
Sep 14

Challenging Energy Companies to Compete

by Amy Caraballo

Since the dawn of time, humans have thrived on competition. Today, countries continue to compete for dominance in both the financial markets and for total power. Competition isn’t limited to national governments, however. In the United States, entire weekends are devoted to televised sporting events and children, as young as toddlers, compete in sports (Sports Connection, n.d.). Even the performing arts have become televised competitions. It seems only natural then to look at the power of competition to change our energy consuming ways. What about our options, though? Few companies offer much renewable energy. Even those that do offer only a small fraction of the energy produced through renewable resources (American Physical Society, n.d.). How can consumers meaningfully change our consumption when the options are so severely limited? But, what if we used this naturally competitive streak of our human nature on the actual energy companies, themselves?

What Do We Need?

Nearly 40% of the world’s electricity is produced by burning coal (Nijhuis, 2014). The burning of coal is one of the main contributors of greenhouse gases, specifically CO2 (Nijhuis, 2014). And coal isn’t the only problem. All fossil fuels, including natural gas, capjerimum_Greenhouse_Effectpropane, gasoline, even butane give off CO2 as a byproduct of their use (EIA, n.d.). In fact, 84% of all the world’s power is created through fossil fuels. (American Physical Society, n.d.). These resources are also severely limited and we are destined to run out (Riddel, Ronson, Counts, & Spenser, n.d.). It is obvious that we need to find renewable and ecologically safe alternatives and we need to do this soon. But with such changes come costs and there has been little financial incentive for energy companies to change their ways. After all, consumers still need energy regardless of where it comes from.

What Do We Know?

In 1996, Siero et al. studied how a phenomenon called comparative feedback influenced industrial employees to conserve energy while at work. Basically, the scientists found that when a group of workers saw how their own conservation efforts stacked up against another group’s efforts, they worked harder at conserving energy (Siero et al, 1996). This comparative feedback idea has also been used successfully in getting individuals to reduce energy consumption at home (Midden, Meter, Weenig & Zieverink, 1983). Knowing that competition also drives much of our capitalistic economy, it would seem that using comparative feedback to stir up competition might also work on the energy companies, themselves.

How Do We Do It?

From a financial standpoint, there is very little reason for an energy company to scrap current technology and know-how to convert resources to renewable energy. Conversion is costly in both time and resources. Though we can make many moral and environmental arguments for switching, the bottom line is usually about money. In order for energy companies to change, there has to be financial incentive. One way we might incentivize the industry is to create government sponsored competition. Though thispowerplants idea might incur public costs, these costs could be minimal if in the form of advertisement. Using the idea of comparative feedback, the government could create public advertising campaigns that gave statistics about how well each energy company was doing in terms of changing to renewable sources. This advertising could serve as a financial incentive for companies who were working harder at switching to renewable energy. Consumers would be able to know which energy companies were more dedicated to saving the planet and thus these companies could outsell their competition.

What Does This Look Like?

Much like other United States Government sponsored campaigns (think The Ad Council), there could be multimedia campaigns that ensured that people knew which companies were changing over to renewable resources. This could be updated on a monthly or semi-monthly basis and be part of the national news, for instance. In order for it to work, this information would have to be consistently sent out and updated. People would need to know when to expect the information and where to get it. As long as the information was flowing, consumers would have choices and the energy companies would have to work hard at keeping the consumers happy.

But Will It Work?

A program is only as good as its evaluation process. There would have to be a way to measure how much positive change was happening in the form of continually more available renewable energy and less available fossil fuel sources after this comparative advertising campaign took flight. We would have to measure how much renewable energy was available in the short-term of the program and then how much was available in more of a long-term time frame. Because this intervention also presumes that consumers want renewable energy, more studies should be done to gauge the public’s knowledge about the dire circumstances of our continued reliance on fossil fuels. The knowledge or lack thereof could affect how much or little change happens in terms of energy production from the industry. In other words, they might build it, but will we buy it?

For those who are aware of the dire circumstances of global climate change and the limited supply of fossil fuels, switching to renewable energy is, well, a no-brainer. If we want the Earth to support life a little while longer we must find a way to reduce our usage. For those who are hard to convince, however, we might need some incentives. Competition is as old as we humans, ourselves. Perhaps we can use that competitive quality to push everyone, even energy companies, to save our species.


American Physical Society. (n.d.). Fossil Energy. Retrieved from http://www.aps.org/policy/reports/popa-reports/energy/fossil.cfm

Midden, C., Meter, J., Weenig, M., & Zieverink, H. (1983). Using feedback, reinforcement and information to reduce energy consumption in households: A field-experiment. Economic Psychology, 3.1, 65-86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4870(83)90058-2

Nijhuis, M. (2014). Can Coal Ever Be Clean? Retrieved from http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/04/coal/nijhuis-text

Riddell, A., Ronson, S., Counts, G., & Spenser, K. (n.d.). Towards Sustainable Energy: The Current Fossil Fuel Problem and the Prospects of Geothermal and Nuclear Power. Retrieved from http://web.stanford.edu/class/e297c/trade_environment/energy/hfossil.html

Sports Connection LLC. (n.d.). Lil’ Kickers Soccer. Retrieved from http://www.sportsconnectionnc.com/details.php?Lil-Kickers-Soccer-40

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). (n.d.). Energy – Carbon Dioxide Emissions Coefficients. Retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/environment/emissions/co2_vol_mass.cfm


19
Sep 14

Making Changes to Reduce Our Carbon Footprint

I am sitting here brainstorming, thinking of a good environmental issue to write about and how applied social psychology relates to it.  I could write about how human dependence on fossil fuels is causing global warming, but I won’t.  Instead I’m going to write about my own personal experience as a consumer of natural energy resources, and the changes I’ve made to reduce my family’s carbon footprint.

I wish I could say that it was my concern for the environment which urged me and my family to make the changes initially, but it was not.  Eight years ago my husband lost his job as a production manager at the manufacturing plant he had worked at for ten years.  This was a major impact on our lives, our income changed drastically.  The first thing I did was research on all the ways we could reduce our monthly spending.  Some major things our family could change that would reduce our bills were related to the environment; we could reduce our consumption of electricity, water, natural gas, and petroleum.  I came up with a list of all the changes we would make that would save us a bundle of money and also help to reduce our carbon footprint.  We had a savings, thank goodness, or we would not have been able to make some of the changes required.

First we reduced our use of gasoline; my husband traded in his gas guzzling SUV for a more economical sedan.  His MPG went from 15 to 27.  Then we went out and bought the energy efficient CFL bulbs and changed all of the light bulbs in our home.  We also began getting in the habit of turning off lights when not in use and turning of the TV when nobody is physically watching it.  Another way we reduced our carbon footprint was to conserve water.  I’ve always been thoughtful about that, but we made a few more changes.  For instance our dishwasher has an economy setting which uses much less water, so we began using that setting.  My son, who loves to dilly dally in the shower, with our encouragement, reduced his shower time from twenty minutes to ten minutes.  We changed the shower heads in our two bathrooms to water conserving ones.  Another change I made was creating a way to collect rainwater from our gutter system to be used to water our yard instead of using the water hose.  Another change we made was using our tap water for drinking water, instead of purchasing bottled water.  Which after research I learned that bottled water does nothing but line the pockets of whoever sells it.  We also had our furnace changed from the original one that was a good fifty plus years old with 45% efficiency, to a new model that cut our natural gas consumption nearly in half with a new furnace that has 90% efficiency.  This cost a little bit upfront, but has greatly reduced our monthly natural gas bill and was definitely worth it.  With all the changes being made, we felt it was important to have a family meeting to discuss the importance of being more thoughtful of the energy we use.  In order to help our children make the changes we got them involved and made the good energy saving behaviors part of their reward chart.  We also assigned them jobs; my son was put in charge of recycling, and our daughter is the one who makes sure we are turning of lights and not leaving things on that are not in use.  They are good little energy conservation law enforcers.

Even though we are back on track economically, the new changes that we made are still with us and have encouraged our children to participate actively in reducing our carbon footprint and coming up with ideas to be more thoughtful consumers.  My son is in charge of the recycling that goes on around here.  He’s like a little recycling policeman, making sure that anything that could go in the recycle bins gets put there and not accidentally put in the trash.  He even finds interesting new uses for items that would normally get tossed out; for instance an old plastic shelf that we were going to throw out has become a display shelf in his room for all his favorite toys.

I found that as these changes were being made in our home, I began talking about it with my friends.  When I told them about the cost savings we experienced after making these changes, some of my friends began to make some of the changes also.  This relates to the idea in the book that people with common interests and beliefs tend to socialize with and influence each other (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012).   It seemed that the more conscious we were of our use of energy and water, the more thoughtful we became about other areas we could make changes.  For instance, I now use nothing but reusable grocery bags when I shop.  I also is try to make errands as efficient as possible, so I’m not driving all over using more gas than necessary.  At first it takes a bit of an effort, but then over time becomes habit and though initially these changes were motivated by the need to reduce our costs, it is a good feeling knowing that with a few simple acts that we are reducing our carbon footprint.  These habits will carry on with our children, as I’m certain that by the time they are adults it will be an important part of their daily life.

 

 

Reference

Schneider, F., Gruman, J., Coutts, L. (2012).  Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed.) Los Angeles: Sage.


02
Sep 14

tips for writing a blog post

The Technical

The first step is to make sure that you have access to posting to the blogs here at Penn State. To do so, you need to get your webaccess ID.

The second thing is to try out a test entry. You can do this in your own personal blog or in our shared blog space. Click on “+ Post” towards the top of the page. You can then create an entry using the form. plusI recommend trying out a few different things such as including a link and inserting a picture as these are things that you will want to do with your regular entries to enhance the content. Make sure to title this test something like “test entry”.

It is recommended that you write the entry using word processing software (such as Word or Pages) first and then copy and paste it over as the spellcheck is not great here.

Hit “Publish” towards the right side of the page. publishBut also don’t forget to proofread both before you do that and after your entry is published so that your entry looks professional.

Feel free to ask questions if you need help. Your instructor is happy to help, as is the blogs support team.

 

The Content

Think of an idea that you want to write about. Research the idea and take some notes. Create an outline and then draft the entry after you have a thesis . Otherwise you run the risk of your entry sounding like stream of consciousness writing or a rant. While blogs are less formal than say term papers or academic essays, you still want them to sound intelligent and be informative to your readers. To that end, you want to include your references and cite where your information is from so that your readers can find out more information if they so choose and can hopefully engage in you in an intelligent conversation about your topic by reading the information that you are basing your ideas from.

Have fun and get creative. Add things like videos, charts, pictures or links that demonstrate your point. Feel free to add some humor and make the entry personal (obviously remain professional as the information is public).

References

The Pennsylvania State University. (n.d.). Sites at Penn State. Retrieved at: http://sites.psu.edu/support/

Writing Tutorial Services, Indiana University. (2008). How to write a thesis statement. Retrieved online at: http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/thesis_statement.shtml

 

An earlier version of this entry appeared in the Applied Social Psychology Blog.


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