PSYCH 424 blog

In reading this week’s lesson, I was brought to a sudden realization of some of the ways in which I hold myself back in the academic sphere. Particularly, under the procrastination and self-handicapping section, I found myself relating to many of the negative attitudes out of self-protection. However, I was not always this way. I used to have an excellent relationship with school and saw a direct correlation between the effort I put in and the results I would receive. I have always prided myself on being a good student and receiving good grades, and while that is still somewhat the case, I can feel how procrastination and self-handicapping are holding me back. I would like to use this blog as an opportunity to address the ways in which I allow self-handicapping to affect me today and how I can go about fixing it. Hopefully, if anyone else has experienced this, this blog can be a resource to them as well.

Self-handicapping refers to the barriers a student will use as excuses to prevent them from achieving academic success (Gruman et al., 2017). If the student fails, they have an easy extrinsic excuse to use to explain the failure, and if they somehow succeed, they feel an inflated sense of self because they managed to succeed despite the handicap (Gruman et al., 2017). I have experienced this many times. I can offer weekly examples of how self-handicapping makes its way into my academics. The action of pushing off one course for the sake of another, or for the sake of pushing off the course is referred to as procrastination (Gruman et al., 2017). With a variety of due dates popping up throughout the week, it can be difficult to prioritize which courses to dedicate time to first in order to balance each assignment and not submit multiple late. At times, decisions must be made. If two courses have due dates set for the exact same day but one offers a late policy whereas the other does not, I am automatically left to focus on the one with less leniency (and please trust me, the ones with more leniency are much appreciated for reasons past just this type of case). While procrastination is a temporary reprieve from the work to be done, papers still need to be submitted and the stress is only pushed further and longer. Any poor grades I receive are simply a reflection of the assignment being submitted late rather than my work itself. This creates a cycle of negative attitudes throughout the week as different classes are pushed to different dates and late work is juggled. How can one go about ending such a cycle?

I have a deep love for the Harvard Business Review, and as such, decided to see if they had any articles about overcoming self-handicapping to compare to the strategies outlined in our lesson. Susan David (2012) offers a couple of tips for overcoming self-handicapping and negative behaviors that combined with our lesson could give me a great plan to make it through the rest of the semester.

Her first step is watching for the warning signs (David, 2012). David (2012) stresses the importance of identifying the most common excuses made and typical distractions that keep one from succeeding at a task. In my case, this includes social media. I use social media as a typical distraction when I feel overwhelmed by multiple due dates and assignments. What feels like a few minutes of scrolling can quickly turn into hours of distraction and rabbit holes of media that keep me from being productive. I plan to mitigate this by setting time limits on apps that I cannot go past 15 minutes per day of access. This will allow me to manage my time and energy better and stop procrastinating on the completion of assignments.

David’s (2012) second tip is to focus on generating goals rather than excuses. By focusing on what factors are in my control to set goals for performance rather than looking for outside excuses for performance hindrances, I can begin to motivate myself rather than detriment myself. In my final semester of school, finding motivation has been a challenge. Recalling my final semester of high school, the feeling is not unfounded, though the stakes and investments are a bit higher at this stage. If I do not have motivation now, I need to find it quickly as the light is at the end of the tunnel and momentum cannot slow. The work I do is less of a concern at the time it is submitted. I absorb information from lessons well and understand the information, I just need to find the motivation to complete and submit assignments on time. I have begun to use extrinsic forms of motivation to combat this such as buying myself a coffee or article of clothing for every assignment that is submitted on time. I find enjoyment in learning new information, hence I am intrinsically motivated to study. I do not find enjoyment in completing assignments (unfortunately), so I am relying mainly on extrinsic factors to motivate me in this regard. This is a new intervention, so I will monitor it to decide if it is effective in motivation and adjust if necessary.

With these concepts in mind and other concepts from our lesson, my goal is to begin submitting assignments on time and focus on the factors that are within my control until I can complete my semester. Finding a balance between school, work, and health can seem nearly impossible and lead me to engage in negative self-handicapping behaviors. This is not how I want to spend my final weeks prior to graduation, so I am looking forward to applying the concepts outlined by Susan David (2012) as well as our lesson in an effort to find a more stable routine that involves more action and less juggling.

References

David, S. (2012). Don’t sabotage yourself. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/05/dont-sabotage-yourself

Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage.

Bullying in school is something we all were a part of, whether that was getting bullied, being the bully, or simply being a bystander to it happening before us. It’s everywhere, in every school across the nation, and it’s been happening for longer than we have studies for. Bullying is a form of youth aggression that is acted out on others, often as means of coping. In this essay, I’ll be going over the other possible reasons for youth aggression and the ways in which it can be prevented. 

Bullying often occurs during middle school, ages 12-14, and decreases as they transition into high school. (Gruman, 2017). During this time, kids are going through big life changes. This can include puberty, new social groups and norms to learn, and the stress of school work. Hormonal changes can make a big impact on mental health, as this shift occurs the brain makes changes and the body is under stress as a surge of estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone surge. This can lead to a feeling of unease while so many changes are being made, many kids look to fit in, as to not stand out and be ostracized, by trying to follow the descriptive norms. 

Descriptive norms are what the individual perceives to be the typical behavior, even if it is not correct. (Gruman, 2017).  Following these norms is important for teens as being an outcast or not fitting/following these perceived behaviors can result in bullying and alienation. As social groups separate farther from one another it’s easier to pick apart the opposite group/person. To help prevent this, a jigsaw classroom technique could be implemented throughout schools on a regular basis. This would help students from different backgrounds, ethnicities and social groups get together and work on a common assignment or project together. Problem solving and creating something together with a new person can help create new bonds, friendships, and empathy for this person. As more kids learn about one another and create meaningful memories, it’s more difficult to pick apart one another. 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. 

Belief perseverance and cognitive error are two psychological phenomena that can play a significant role in racism. Belief perseverance is the tendency to stick to one’s beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence. Cognitive error is a mental process that leads to inaccurate thinking. One way that belief perseverance can contribute to racism is by making it difficult for people to change their racist beliefs, even when they are presented with evidence that those beliefs are wrong (Baron & Byrne, 2016). For example, a person who believes that Black people are less intelligent than white people may be reluctant to change that belief, even if they see evidence that Black people perform just as well as white people on intelligence tests.

Another way that belief perseverance can contribute to racism is by making it difficult for people to recognize their own biases. For example, a person who believes that they are not racist may still hold racist beliefs without being aware of it. This can lead to them making racist decisions or statements without realizing it. Cognitive error can also contribute to racism in a number of ways. One way is through the use of stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalizations about entire groups of people that are often inaccurate and harmful (Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. 2016). For example, the stereotype that Black people are lazy can lead to people believing that Black people are less likely to work hard, even when there is no evidence to support this belief (Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. 1993).

Another way that cognitive error can contribute to racism is through the use of confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and interpret information in a way that confirms one’s existing beliefs (Kruglanski, A. W., & Ajzen, I. 2009). For example, a person who believes that Black people are criminals may be more likely to notice news stories about Black people committing crimes, even if those stories are not representative of the reality of crime rates among Black people (Gilliam, F. D., & Iyengar, S. 2000).

Finally, cognitive error can also contribute to racism through the use of mental shortcuts. Mental shortcuts are heuristics or rules of thumb, that people use to make decisions quickly and efficiently. However, mental shortcuts can sometimes lead to errors in thinking. For example, the heuristic of availability bias is the tendency to base judgments on the information that is most readily available to us. This can lead to people overestimating the prevalence of stereotypes, such as the stereotype that Black people are criminals. It is important to note that belief perseverance and cognitive error are not unique to racism. They can also play a role in other forms of prejudice and discrimination. However, they are particularly relevant to racism because they can make it difficult to change racist beliefs and behaviors.

References:

Baron, R. A., & Byrne, D. (2016). Social psychology (13th ed.). Pearson.

Pettigrew, T. F., & Meertens, R. W. (1993). Attitudes: Representation, measurement, and change. Brooks/Cole.

Kruglanski, A. W., & Ajzen, I. (2009). Basic concepts in social psychology (4th ed.). Psychology Press.

Gilliam, F. D., & Iyengar, S. (2000). Prime time and prejudice: How television frames racial issues. Princeton University Press.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Do the outcomes that other people have in their lives happen because of you? It is a strange question and seems obvious at first thought. However, what if there was a chance that the belief you had towards people’s future actions caused those people to do what you thought they would? Sounds like a superpower, but it is just an example of a Self-fulfilling Prophecy. This phenomenon affects many people, from kids to adults, employees to employers, and could also explain why some of our fears come true.

To be clearer, a self-fulfilling prophecy is the effect your expectations have on someone, and how it influences that person’s behavior around you (Gruman et al., 2017, pg. 237). The outcome from these expectations can be positive or negative depending on the attitude/belief of the one holding expectations. In addition to this, this can only happen when the belief is plausible, if your expectation is your neighbor turning into a giraffe, then the outcome is you being silly. On the other hand, if your expectation is that some of your students are geniuses, and others will not make it through the end of the year, this is not only plausible, but has been put to the test.

Researchers in Germany made a study where they would measure the teacher’s expectations and their student’s current/prior achievement, to see if the teachers’ expectations would affect (or predict) the outcomes of the students’ results later in the year (Gentrup et al., 2020). The results showed that teachers usually had some inaccurate expectations, that either did not match the students’ current achievements, abilities, or prior accomplishments. When the teachers had inaccurately elevated expectations, the students would have higher grades overall in math and reading. While when the teachers had inaccurately low expectations, the students had much lower scores than compared to those with higher scores, especially in reading.

These results show how our beliefs, and in turn our actions from them, form our relationship with others and our realities. Another example of self-fulfilling prophecy affecting our perception of reality and others is the police and the communities that interact with them. On July 4th of 2023, Jadarrius Rose, a truck driver, was pursued by police officers for a missing mud flap inspection (Press, 2023). After pulling over, Rose noticed that the police had their guns drawn, in fear he drove away and called 911. After explaining to the police operator his fear of how the police were “trying to kill him” and the confusion of the drawn weapons he finally pulled over (Rosales, 2023). When he got out, with his hands up, two different forces were at the scene, one with a dog unit (Circleville police department) and another with just guns drawn (state troopers). After conflicting instructions from both the troopers and police, and the state troopers urging to then ordering the police to NOT release their hound, a police officer by the name Speakman released a hound on Rose. This one case is a prime example of how the initial guns drawn on Rose changed Rose’s behavior to match the police’s belief of him being a threat, causing Rose’s fears to come true.

To put it briefly, our expectations hold more power over our behavior and actions in accordance with others. This can be a strength that can help improve those around us, or an unintentional weapon that causes a decline in achievement or harm in worst cases. Schools, communities, and people in general should invest in interventions that take hold of this phenomenon to avoid the consequence of negative expectations and hone positive aspect Self-fulfilling prophecies can do to our reality and perception of others.

References:

Gentrup, S., Lorenz, G., Kristen, C., & Kogan, I. (2020). Self-fulfilling prophecies in the classroom: Teacher expectations, teacher feedback and student achievement. Learning and Instruction, 66, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.101296

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.

Press, A. (2023, August 23). Charges may be dropped against black driver who was mauled by police dog while surrendering. NBCNews.com. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/charges-dropped-black-driver-mauled-police-dog-ohio-rcna101317

This week’s lesson had focal point of education and stereotypes. This blog will be dedicated to gender stereotypes across education. Gender stereotypes refer to widely held belief and expectations about the characteristics, abilities, and roles of males and females. Gender stereotypes are important to challenge as they can influence opportunities and experiences students have, leading to unequal treatment and limiting potential of students.

When individuals deviate from gender stereotypes, they may be penalized by others—especially when their behaviors are prescriptive for the opposite gender (Boutyline, Arseniev-Koehler, & Cornell, 2020). Popular gender stereotypes envision women and men as categorically distinct and hierarchically different, with men seen as more competent and higher status than women. Girls and women thus risk social sanctions for displaying leadership qualities like competence and confidence. (Boutyline, Arseniev-Koehler, & Cornell, 2020). Unfortunatley, gender sterotypes are promoted to children at a young age, making them even more rooted in the ways we perceive differences in gender. Gender stereotypes have powerful consequences for adolescents’ academic outcomes. Because of a lack of systematic repeated measures of gender stereotypes across the years (Boutyline, Arseniev-Koehler, & Cornell, 2020). With such a large effect on academics, it is so important we see a change in these dynamics across genders.

Slowly but surely efforts are being made to challenge and disrupt these stereotypes to create a more inclusive and equal education for all students. In years to come hopefully we see these barriers broken down and equal treatment among all genders.

Works Cited

Boutyline, A., Arseniev-Koehler, A., & Cornell, D. (2020). School, Studying, and Smarts:  Gender Stereotypes and Education across 80 Years of American Print Media, 1930-2009. doi:10.31235/osf.io/bukdg

I think I am  the biggest procrastinator of all time, and no I don’t think there is something wrong with me, so much so that I sometimes feel it is ingrained in my  genetic DNA and, I have passed it down to my 3 kids. t I don’t think procrastinators are lazy or irresponsible. In fact I think all creative people are procrastinators to a certain extent. Creative processes require time to think and mull over. In this day and age, we are constantly surrounded by distractions of all sorts, it’s not like we can sit in a chair like a painting of a great thinker from the past, and spend hours mulling over out thoughts. In today’s world we are on the move constantly, even if are not moving physically, we are moving mentally, continuously  trying to focus on the important, and immediate things, and trying not to get distracted with people and media bombarding us fighting to get our attention.

Take this blog as an example, I been thinking about it since Monday morning as soon as I read just a few pages of my assigned reading, from that moment on I been writing this blog constantly in my mind, while cooking, driving, brushing my teeth, it’s just putting the pen to paper or rather fingers on the key board that I am procrastinating. I don’t believe I have a choice in not procrastinating, many a times I have resisted the temptation, and did my work in advance, but I was so disappointed with it, that I ended up completely deleting it and starting again. Procrastination can work wonders for the creative endeavors, but of course I would never procrastinate for things like paying my bills, or getting ready to reach somewhere on time, or picking up my kids from school, why is that? Because delaying these things can be detrimental to me, or my loved ones, or even my self respect. Similarly I would never procrastinate in revising for an exam or a test, because it requires continuous effort in small chunks. I am also aware that deadlines are a big motivators for procrastinators like myself, if I didn’t have to publish this blog by 12 pm today, I would most probably will be still thinking about it, instead of typing, so yes there is a limit to every procrastination too, you can’t just keep procrastinating, eventually you have to make peace with your thoughts, and put pen to the paper. I don’t believe that all procrastinators are bad student, and  get bad grades, I always get reasonably good grades, and so do my kids, so yes at the ripe old age of 49, I have made peace with the fact, that I am a procrastinator, and I am proud of it.

I also think that we as parents, and educators need to go easy on, kids who struggle with procrastination, I think there is a very fine line in being irresponsible, lazy or being a perfectionist, and a procrastinator. I know that I have seen it in my kids, that it is vital for them that they are not late for their assignments, and they are extremely conscious of the fact that their teachers respect them, so what’s the harm than, if they procrastinate in finishing their work, but still hand over good quality work on time?

Coutts, L.M., Gruman, J.A. and Schneider, F.W. (2016) Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications.

https://www.bbc.com/worklife/article/20210319-why-procrastination-can-help-fuel-creativity

Procrastination is an obstacle that anyone can experience with virtually any task one faces. Someone can experience procrastination towards something they simply don’t want to do, be intimidated to do, and so on. More specifically, for students, procrastination can be the demise of their academic ambitions. It is a common hurdle for students, but it can be more difficult for some than others. For some people it could be a passing difficulty, while others struggle with it consistently. There are a couple key factors that contribute to the development of procrastination, which are the lack of intrinsic motivation and social comparison. 

Procrastination is a self-defeating strategy, and is defined as, “delaying the completion of a task or intended course of action, can be either an adaptive or maladaptive coping strategy depending on one’s reasons for engaging in it and the type of student that you are.” (Gruman, p. 226). Students frequently experience procrastination when they feel apathetic towards school. According to researchers, they have found “that procrastination is primarily a motivational issue, related to the self-regulation of behavior.” (Gruman, p. 227). A couple reasons why students procrastinate is because they feel they are not equipped to complete their assignments or they feel the assignment frankly is displeasing. Because of procrastination, students often turn in less than proficient work, submit assignments late, and in turn receive lower grades. Students fall into these effects of procrastination due to having a negative perspective on school, then believing it is pointless. If students do not become aware of the seriousness of this mindset, it is possible they can drop out of school as a result of their procrastinating tendencies. 

In order for students to overcome this self hindrance so that they can succeed in reaching their academic goals, they need to realize the root of the problem. A root problem in procrastination in academics would be that education is externally rewarding. This encourages students to be motivated by external rewards, which then is depleted rather quickly. Regarding this, researchers claim “The unintended message conveyed to students is that working on academic tasks is not interesting or is of little value, and that rewards are needed to get people to learn.” (Gruman, p. 230). It is difficult for students to become or remain motivated to stay consistent with their studies because they are not interested in the tasks or they feel the tasks are not worth doing. 

Another factor in procrastination for students is social comparison. An example, a student can have motivation for their entire academic career because they have been satisfied with their performance in grades. Problems can arise in their motivation if they get a lower score than expected and see another student excelling as they could have been. Simply, a student comparing their academics to another and seeing someone else doing better can cause them to feel less motivated. In other words, “Comparing your performance with that of your classmate, you may end up feeling bad even though the grade you received was a fairly good one.” (Gruman, p. 235). Of course, it seems almost innate to compare ourselves socially, however, it is important to make an effort towards using it in a healthy and helpful way instead of it becoming something negative. 

Overall, procrastination is something that everyone experiences, however, students should carefully monitor their time so they don’t fall victim to their own self-defeating  tendencies. They should be aware of what they need to stay motivated and what behaviors they should avoid to stay focused. The external structure of education is not ideal for students’ motivation because motivation is intrinsic. And social comparison can deplete motivation when a student is already lacking self confidence. Both intrinsic values and positive self-comparison are important to keep procrastination at bay so students can strive for success. 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. 

In the film “The Blind Side,” the protagonist, Quinton, has experienced a tumultuous journey within the education system. The narrative underscores the critical significance of providing support and guidance within a team or family unit to facilitate personal growth and maximize potential. Throughout the movie, the Tuohy family exemplifies effective communication and understanding, fostering a strong bond with Michael, and emphasizing the pivotal role of trust and a sense of belonging in enhancing individual well-being and performance. 

​​In response to the challenges faced, the coach, in collaboration with Michael’s legal guardian, orchestrates a series of team-building interventions.​ These interventions include targeted Team Building Workshops, which prioritize the cultivation of trust, communication, and collaboration among team members. Additionally, engaging bonding activities, such as outdoor exercises and friendly competitions, are implemented to fortify camaraderie and establish a supportive team environment, thereby elevating teamwork, and on-field performance. 

Recognizing the importance of mental resilience in the context of football, the coach introduces interventions focused on visualization, goal setting, and stress management. These strategies are designed to bolster players’ psychological well-being, foster confidence, and improve focus, ultimately enhancing their performance and resilience during competitive play. By integrating these comprehensive team-building interventions, football teams can cultivate a unified and supportive atmosphere that nurtures effective communication, mutual respect, and a shared dedication to achieving collective success on the field. These efforts contribute significantly to the team’s overall performance, resilience, and triumph in the realm of competitive football. 

Hancock, J. L., Netter, G., Johnson, B., & Kosove, A. A. (2009). ​The blind side.​ United States; Warner Bros. Pictures.  

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). ​Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ​ed​.).​ Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

Have you ever found yourself thinking about characters on TV as inspirational models for your efforts as a student? Perhaps Hermoine Granger, Elle Woods, the boys from Dead Poet Society. If the media has the power to influence how we perceive the world and what we think about, it has the power to make us better students. The modern student lives in a digital age where technology has become integral to their daily lives. The positive impacts of technology on education are undeniable. A student today has easy access to the internet and a plethora of online resources they can use to enhance their learning experiences like never before. 

As the world changes at a rapid speed, the education system seems stuck in the past. Yes, there have been additions in the classroom, from utilizing videos to teach a subject, interactive games to review subjects and Google Classroom. However, we can no longer deny the larger influence technology plays in the lives of students that may be interfering with the development of students if they are not used properly. Students need education on digital literacy and critical thinking suited for the 21st century. This adaptation is vital because technology is fundamentally altering the way we access and process information, collaborate, and solve problems. 

Many critics worry about the negative consequences of technology and their worries have validity if the system does not adapt. A prominent concern that comes with the digital era is the concept of self-handicapping. Self-handicapping is the idea that students adapt behaviors that make up excuses and set up barriers to protect themselves in the case of failure (Gruman et al., 2017). The digital age provides students with tools to mask their efforts and avoid academic responsibility. For example, a student might blame technological mishaps for bad grades and failure to understand the course. A student might plug a prompt into an AI platform to write an essay and turn it in without additional effort. All these harmful behaviors are made as an attempt to have a crutch to lean on when things do not go their way.

To conclude, tools like AI and the overwhelming amount of information a person comes in contact with while surfing the internet are an indicator that it is time we rethink the education system to match the demands of young minds today. We must begin to discuss and find better ways to approach education as we live in a world that does not look as it did 40 to 50 years ago. Through the correct use of technology can enhance the quality and efficiency of education. It can provide personalized learning experiences, accommodating different learning styles and paces. By integrating technology into education, we can create a more engaging and dynamic learning environment that not only prepares students for the future but also makes education more accessible and inclusive for a diverse range of learners.

References 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Violence in the media is such a complex and important topic to consider. There is a numerous of research that examines the potential impact of violent media content on individuals, especially children and adolescents. Yes exposure to violence in media does not automatically lead to real-life violent behavior, as there are multiple factors that contribute to an individual’s behavior and attitudes. However, studies have shown that repeated exposure to violence in the media can desensitize individuals to real-life violence, which then increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors. All this lead to a distorted perception of the world. This is particularly true for young and impressionable minds, as they are still developing their understanding of social norms and consequences.

Long-term studies have shown that exposure to violent media in childhood and adolescence can predict aggressive behavior later in life. For example, a longitudinal study by Huesmann et al. (2003) found that childhood exposure to media violence was associated with higher levels of aggression in adulthood.It’s worth mentioning that the media landscape has evolved significantly, with various platforms and forms of entertainment now available. Parents and caregivers play a crucial role in guiding children’s media consumption, helping them understand and critically evaluate the content they are exposed to. Setting age-appropriate limits, discussing the potential impact of violent media, and encouraging media literacy skills can all help children navigate the media landscape more responsibly.

Research has also shown that exposure to violent media can lead to desensitization, where individuals become less emotionally responsive to real-life violence (Funk et al. 2004). Desensitization can lead to no remorse or no feelings when others are getting harmed or violence is occurring. It may also diminish empathy for others suffering or a blurring of the line between fantasy and reality.  The media does also have cognitive effect on children the constant exposure to violent media can interfere with a child’s cognitive development. Excessive focus on violent content may reduce attention span, impair critical thinking, and mess with children problem-solving abilities

In conclusion, while violence in the media can have potential negative effects, it’s essential to approach this topic a certain way. By promoting media literacy, responsible consumption, and thoughtful content creation, we are able to  help mitigate the potential impact of violence in the media and foster a more positive and informed media culture.

References

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1186998.pdf

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4393354/

Think about this instance:

Its 1pm: You think to yourself I’ll start my assignment at 1:30pm

You go to TikTok watch some reels.

You go to Instagram to check what’s on the stories section.

You go to Facebook to look at new updates on your family and friends life

Looking at the time you see its: 1:45pm

You think oh well, I’ll just start at 2pm then…

This continues on and on… until the final hours of the time a person has for the assignment must be submitted.

What is Procrastination? A lot of students fall under this, and it is the delay in doing a task and it depends on the reason for using it and what kind of student you are; it can be an adaptive or maladaptive coping mechanism (Gruman et al., 2016). There are two types of people based on our book that do procrastinate: (1) one of them is that they take pleasure in working under pressure to meet the deadline, making them pull an “all nighter” (2) The other is that the person with a task is afraid of failing they don’t know how to complete a task it is unpleasant to them to finish the assignment (Gruman et al., 2016).

Self-regulation is linked to Procrastination; task management, planning, and completion depend on one’s capacity for self-regulation of behavior and motivational factors (Gruman et al., 2016). There is a negative view of students dealing with this. Research by Hailikari et al. (2021) has shown it is associated with lower academic performance, more stress, and a lack of mental health—individuals who deal with this need to work on self-regulation, as the long term can be harmful. For example, more stress, low quality of work, relationship complications regarding their schedule messing up their plans with others, and even health issues can arise due to the high-stress level. 

But how do we procrastinate? Nowadays, we are in our digital era. The internet is to inspect this phenomenon on the issue. One study found that in part due to their design features that encourage immersion and continual interaction, it lures them into digging deeper into the media (Alblwi et al., 2021). An example is if let’s call this girl Erika, she does her assignments and submits them just in time for the deadline to close. How did she get there? She was using her phone, scrolling through Instagram or watching YouTube videos on her phone. She sets up a timer that in 10 minutes she start, but it never happens until it is stretching close to the deadline. Luckily, she made it on time with a few seconds to spare. The internet can be good and bad. It’s just the time management of how a person can behave and have self-control.

So, what can we do? One could be to set a realistic goal; this can be I’ll read a couple of chapters in (How to Stop Procrastinating: Tips and Techniques for Overcoming Procrastination, 2023). Two can be do something in your list that is the easiest; if you can’t do your primary assignment, what is a small step into tackling your task? The action can be reading the lessons on the site or researching the topic. Another could be a change in your environment, such as working in your bedroom and switching it to a place that wouldn’t distract you from what you need to complete, so find a quiet place that can help you be in a better state of mind (Bokari & Larson, 2021). 

Resources:

(1) Alblwi, A., McAlaney, J., Al-Thani, D., Phalp, K., & Ali, R. (2021). Procrastination on social

media: predictors of types, triggers and acceptance of countermeasures. Social Network Analysis

and Mining, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13278-021-00727-1

‌ (2) Bokari , D., & Larson, J. (2021, April 20). 5 Ways to Stop Procrastinating. Mechanical and

(3) Biomedical Engineering; Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering.

://www.boisestate.edu/coen-mbe/2021/04/20/5-ways-to-stop-procrastinating/

(4) Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.).

SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506353968

(5) Hailikari, T., Katajavuori, N., & Asikainen, H. (2021). Understanding procrastination: A case of

a study skills course. Social Psychology of Education, 24(2), 589–606.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09621-2

(6) Jones, I. (2021). Year two: Effect of procrastination on academic performance of undergraduate

online students. Research in Higher Education Journal, 39.

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1293903.pdf

(7) How to Stop Procrastinating: Tips and Techniques for Overcoming Procrastination – Solving

Procrastination. (2023). Solvingprocrastination.com. https://solvingprocrastination.com/how-to

stop-procrastinating/

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We all perform some sort of cognitive errors within our own lives and certainly have in the past more than once. We can investigate our own belief systems and explain, at least in part, why people perform, behave, and interact in a certain way in certain situations. Cognitive errors, by definition, are thoughts and beliefs that usually cause predictable actions and outcomes during interactions with others or while making judgments (Smith, 2016).

The first type of cognitive error is Fundamental Attribution Error. This is where an individual makes judgments based on a person’s internal characteristics or their feelings about the person themselves, while not considering outside causes for the behavior (Smith, 2016). A simple example of this is if one of your classmates shows up late to a class. You attribute the tardiness to laziness, or that she was likely out late last night partying instead of preparing for class. She, in fact, had a flat tire on the way to school and had to speak with her parents before class to solve an issue. You would be committing Fundamental Attribution Error by concentrating on personal characteristics of a person and weighing them more heavily than situational factors. Most people believe that they are less likely to perform Fundamental Attribution Error because they believe they do not judge a person harshly and take all factors into account (Smith, 2016). To overcome this type of error, one should gain additional information regarding the situation, make a conscious effort to overcome the error, and delve into the true motivations behind a person’s behavior (Smith, 2016).

The second type of Cognitive Error is Belief Persistence. Belief Persistence is where people discredit, ignore or give less weight to information that does not confirm, or further their own beliefs (Smith, 2016). One easy example of this is having a favorite teacher for class and believing what they teach you despite later revelations that these topics taught were later proven false or outdated. The same would go with students who overestimate their own future performance despite poor past performance. You can also see this in students who take a subject once and believe that knowledge of a specific topic or subject will result in elimination of a certain belief. Only after a person is repeatedly exposed to extensive information that does not coincide with their beliefs does any real change even start to occur (Smith, 2016). Simply being open-minded and embracing alternative theories minimizes the risk of Belief Persistence and facilitates intellectual growth (Smith, 2016).

The final type of Cognitive Error is Social Categorization. This type of error essentially sorts people into categories and pits groups against one another based on “social characteristics” (Smith, 2016). We see this in school as evidenced by the “us vs. the teachers” mentality, or “my clique vs. your clique”. Even students, who were divided into groups randomly, rated members of their own group higher in pre-selected characteristics than the other group’s members (Smith, 2016). Social Categorization error is partially due to out-group homogeneity bias (Smith, 2016). This bias means that when we look at a certain group, outside of our own, we tend to think of their members as a single unit, with almost identical characteristics and traits, which is obviously not the case (Smith, 2016). The most influential emotion that all participants felt while performing Social Categorization bias and out-group homogeneity bias was anger (Smith, 2016). To combat this, interaction and communication between socially different groups should be fostered to create a positive foundation. Also, if the problem to be solved is more important than any group or individual outcome, then that encourages cooperation and reduces negative attitudes (Smith, 2016).

While Cognitive Error can be difficult to overcome, it is not impossible. All we need is conscious effort by individuals and groups to be both inclusive of others and mindful of their own beliefs and shortcomings. People need to view others as their equals and partners in learning and achievement rather than as adversaries. Cooperation and communication are essential in overcoming Cognitive Errors both in the workplace and in society at large.

References

Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, edited by Jamie A. Gruman, et al., SAGE Publications, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pensu/detail.action?docID=5945490.

Smith, R. (2016). Applying Social Psychology to the Classroom [Review of Applying Social Psychology to the Classroom]. ProQuest Ebook Central; SAGE Publications, Incorporated. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pensu/reader.action?docID=5945490&ppg=452

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Although the national dropout rate has significantly declined from 2005-2021, dropping from 12.5% to 5.8% (Iriondo, 2023), we can still do better.  There is an old saying that the children are our future.  Why are we willing to stand back and let 5.8% of our future generations fall behind and not succeed?  The argument can be made that it’s their choice or not everyone can be saved.  However, isn’t it also our nation’s responsibility to step up and help our troubled youth?  As they are still minors or children under eighteen, why is it so accepted in our societies to not do something more about it?

Research shows several common reasons why so many youths drop out of school.  Reasons that are based on Individual factors, family factors, school factors, or community factors. Many potential dropouts can struggle with a lack of future orientation, not seeing their potential to be something great and rise above their current situation.  This can lead to low attendance rates and lower levels of academic achievement.  These factors are layered in with the institutional factors such as lack of learning opportunities for the student or standardized learning plans for all students. Suppose a student faces academic challenges to overcome daily, mixed with the blurred perception of their future and the potential family and community factors; Why should they feel compelled to earn their high school diploma?

Another old saying is that it takes a village to raise a child; we need the villagers’ help to overcome the nation’s dropout rate.  When high-risk youth were asked what they didn’t like about going to school, most of the answers were what could be expected. However, some answers are incredibly insightful to the national average of dropouts.  Many adolescents who are unengaged in school don’t necessarily have a disciplinary problem, even though it may come across as such; they are just that, unengaged.  Most schools have a curriculum that is taught to the majority of students.  This is an ironic thought that this would work when we know that not all children learn the same.  What would happen if we gave the students their autonomy back and allowed them to have a say in what classes they will attend?  Everyone would win if students, especially high-risk students, could learn in an intrinsically oriented institution (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 230).  Intrinsically motivated students are not there for rewards or recognition but are genuinely engaged in learning the curriculum or task.

Where do the villagers come in?  Many corporations donate money to schools to help or show their support.  What if they donated their time or knowledge instead?  If a disengaged student only wanted to play video games, is someone in the community willing to run an after-school program about video game programming (YouTube TEDx Talks, 2016, 6:40:00)?  If a youth kept skipping school because he wanted to be a rapper.   Is there a local artist who would donate their time after school to work with the students?  Sometimes, to come up with a solution, we need to think outside the box but get back to basics.  Even though they are minors, their opinions on their education and life trajectory matter; these programs have been implemented in schools, with the community’s help, drastically improving their high-risk students. Attendance and engagement rates.  They come to school with fresh eyes because they have their autonomy back and feel heard and seen.  The village stepped up and is working together to save their youth who are getting lost and need a helping hand to find their way.  Ultimately, the business donating their time could be training one of their future employees and helping get their life back on track in the same step.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed., p. 230). Sage Publications, Inc.

Iriondo, J. (2023, June 8). Census Bureau Releases School Enrollment Report. United States Census Bureau. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2023/school-enrollment-report.html

Smink, J. (2013, February 1). A Proven Solution for Dropout Prevention: Expanded Learning Opportunities. Expanding Minds and Opportunities. https://www.expandinglearning.org/expandingminds/article/proven-solution-dropout-prevention-expanded-learning-opportunities

[YouTube TEDx Talks]. (2016, April 18). Hands-on-Projects: The key to reducing dropout rates [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bENGE5GguQI

Media and violence research started back in the 1960s; growing up in an environment with violence raises the danger of them acting violently, diverse media, such as the internet, video games and social media, enhance the risk of violent behavior on the part of the viewer (Huesmann, 2007)—seeing that nowadays. There is roughly an estimate that 90% of movies include some portrayals of violence, and 68% of video games, 60% of TV shows, and 15% of music videos show violence ‌(Media and Violence: An Analysis of Current Research, 2013). 

Though numerous factors can influence how much violent media affects the watchers. Factors such as age, intelligence, and aggressiveness when the child perceives the media as realistic and identifies with the aggressive characters and their environment (Media and Violence: An Analysis of Current Research, 2013). These factors interplay and cause effects on individuals who are susceptible to the impact of violence to the youth. Media can indeed form attitudes and behavior to the youth; knowing this, we can prevent a bad-case scenario from happening.  

When discussing the consequences of watching violence in the media, what happens to people who get paranoid and scared afterwards? Some children become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others in the media; the children become fearful of the world they live in, and children are more likely to behave aggressively towards others (American Psychological Association, 2013). The fact that watching more violent TV as a teenager did not predict being disruptive as a child raises the possibility that TV viewing may be the root cause rather than the result of aggressive behavior.

What else could happen when watching violent media? Could it be fear as well? Using the cultivation theory, which is the heavy exposure to media, it would be the primary socializing agent in today’s society (Gruman et al., 2016). That is how a person would learn about their world. One of the penalties of media violence is that people begin to see the world as more dangerous and mean (Gruman et al., 2016). Just recently, I saw some violent clips taken and put on TikTok on violence on Asians in the America. It makes me hesitant to go in fear of what if that may happen to me? Its hard to separate the occurrences of what happened in the videos and what can happen in real life. 

Besides the fear, what can be done about the number of violent media affecting children? One can be public awareness. Educating the parents and the children about the issues a child may face when watching these types of shows can be a direct way to lessen the violent shows, movies and so on for the child’s sake. Having rating shows is also a way to identify what media is too much for a child. Respecting the rated “R-16 and PG-13 or R-18” movies should just be given to those allowed to watch that movie as it has been reviewed already. I know this comes off as censoring, but it is for the time being. Children are impressionable and can be swayed to a certain point. I also think communicating the reasons to the child would be most effective as you are telling them the truth and being honest. In addition, it helps clear out concerns and misinformation in the media.

Resources:

• American Psychological Association. (2013). Violence in the media: Psychologists study potential harmful effects. Https://Www.apa.org. https://www.apa.org/topics/video-games/violence-harmful-effects
• ‌Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506353968
• Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The Impact of Electronic Media Violence: Scientific Theory and Research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), S6–S13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.005
• ‌ Media and Violence: An Analysis of Current Research. (2013). https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/research/report/media-and-violence-research-brief-2013.pdf

On the 17th of October around 19:00 in Gaza City, a local hospital al-Ahli Hospital had been struck that caused a blast that would kill hundreds of civilians (Reuters, 2023). This goes against several of the Geneva Convention Articles, all that discuss the protection of citizens, hospital and safety zones, as well as hospital staff and patients (American Red Cross, 2011). The ongoing conflict in Gaza has come full center as an attack from the organization Hamas had caused the death of around 1400 Israelis (BBC News, 2023). Following this attack, IDF have been barraging Gaza City, targeting as many believed Hamas outposts as is known (BBC News, 2023). These IDF air strikes have caused the death of numerous amounts of civilian casualties including multiple healthcare workers and UN colleagues (Shamdasani, 2023). This most recent attack has had major conflicting reports on who was responsible for the al-Ahli Hospital attack, with both the IDF and Israeli government, as well as leaders of Hamas and Islamic Jihad claiming that the others are responsible for the attack. The coverage of the event, and other events that have been taken place continue to dismiss the reality of the situation; civilians are being killed under the guise of warring against terrorism, a very familiar practice that has been going on for over several decades (Jaffee, 2016, p. 490).

But how is the media presenting these incidents? Comparing the least biased sources with sources with a left or right biased source there are some considerable differences. American media outlets are either outwardly supporting Israel like Fox News or are keeping a more “both sides are bad” approach like CNN (Herb, 2023; Richard et al., 2023). Reuters, one of the least biased resources has been giving basic facts without going into detail or referencing potential opinionated material, which is good, but it fails to include viewpoints from different angles and waters down the conflict (Al-Mughrabi, 2023). Compare this to how international news has been discussing the conflict in a more center left to left aspect. Al Jazeera, while not the most reliable source, is very pro-Palestine and has not been holding back on presenting all information that puts the IDF and Israel in the negative light (Al Jazeera, 2023). One thing similar among the left sources is the general supporting of Palestine. This does not mean that they are supporting Hamas or Islamic Jihad, but rather the Palestinian people who are stuck in between this conflict (Ganguly et al., 2023). Unfortunately, all that most sources have been discussing is who’s in the wrong, and not enough on the people impacted.

Mainstream news outlets continue to issue frames and appeal to the specifics of this conflict, without disseminating the nitty gritty of what is happening. When they discuss killing and destroying, they discuss it in a somewhat desensitized way, believing that these things are “just what happens”. Throughout the imagery surrounding the Global War on Terrorism, death and destruction was so mainstreamed and apparent that thinking of Iraq and Afghanistan as anything other than a wasteland felt unreal (Achter, 2016, pp. 1-2). With a westernized focus on the conflict in Palestine, westerners are coming face to face with the realities of the situation, and its comparative situations witnessed for two decades. To think of a military force as doing anything but issuing “justice” to the enemy is foreign. Seeing the IDF airstrike potential Hamas and Islamic Jihad areas reminds the western viewer of how we targeted terrorist organizations as well and decimated them. Regardless of the civilian lives taken, the US was never in the wrong for the average “Patriot” (Achter, 2016, pp. 4-5). Now, without engaging in large western media outlets, the viewer/reader must look at the travesties occurring upon the civilian population. The sources of media that many people get their information from come from Instagram and TikTok. Raw, unedited, real-time footage from the airstrikes is being shown globally. There is no narrative, no headline, no bias, just raw, uninhibited carnage. These are no longer terrorists and enemies. These are women, children, the average person, engaged in the worst times of their lives.

We had the luxury of disengaging with the Global War on Terror if you didn’t serve in the wars (Achter, 2016, pp. 1-2). We were able to play video games where anyone who spoke Arabic was an enemy to kill (Mirrlees & Ibaid, 2021, pp. 38-39). Where anti-westernization was paramount, and where hating errorism reigned, where only weaponized democracy could save them. For years media has been desensitizing violence towards Arabs and Muslims (Mirrlees & Ibaid, 2021, p. 35). In hopes that these same attitudes would be had towards Palestinians by heightening Hamas and Islamic Jihad in place of the citizens of Palestine, an extensive campaign to support and uplift Israel has been had. What occurred in Israel was a travesty, and an unfortunate reaction coming from a people who, due to their conditions, had radicalized and reacted. To believe that an outright onslaught from the IDF is permissible is treacherous, and many people globally have waded through misinformation to understand that what is occurring in Palestine is completely unethical and pseudo-extermination.

What about the hospital? Who do we blame? We blame NATO, EU, and the UN for pressing misinformation, whilst simultaneously being nonreactive to war crimes happening from an established military, one that is liberally funded by the three. It has become increasingly difficult for major media corporations to be able to sway the narrative, and sling to social media outlets as an attempt to broaden their reach. There is an immense amount of misinformation spread daily from all over several social media platforms, including those coming from these major media outlets. It has become increasingly difficult to believe any news that is presented anywhere, and if people are not looking at live coverage from the citizens, they are being misled in some fashion through fringe media outlets who thrive off the disinformation. This is a time for people to demand accuracy in reporting, in information, and in nonbiased media. It is also imperative that we reexamine bias, considering the least biased sources still refrain from presenting information regarding human lives. When we allow the social psychological manipulation of media, we become complicit to atrocities that occur globally.

References

Achter, P. (2016). Rhetoric and the permanent war. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 102(1), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00335630.2016.1135544

Al Jazeera. (2023, October 18). What is Israel’s narrative on the Gaza hospital explosion? Israel-Palestine Conflict News | Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/18/what-is-israels-narrative-on-the-gaza-hospital-explosion

Al-Mughrabi, N. (2023, October 18). Hundreds said killed in Gaza hospital blast, protests erupt. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/diplomats-renew-calls-gaza-aid-iran-warns-israel-2023-10-16/

American Red Cross. (2011). Summary of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Their Additional Protocols. In American Red Cross, International Humanitarian Law.

BBC News. (2023, October 19). Israel Gaza war: History of the conflict explained. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-44124396

Ganguly, M., Graham-Harrison, E., Morresi, E., Kirk, A., Swan, L., & Burke, J. (2023, October 20). Al-Ahli Arab hospital: piecing together what happened as Israel insists militant rocket to blame. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/18/al-ahli-arab-hospital-piecing-together-what-happened-as-israel-insists-militant-rocket-to-blame

Herb, J. (2023, October 19). Between 100 and 300 believed killed in Gaza hospital blast, according to preliminary US intelligence assessment. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2023/10/19/politics/us-intelligence-assessment-gaza-hospital-blast/index.html

Jaffee, L. (2016). The materiality of virtual war: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and the disabling effects of imperialism. Policy Futures in Education, 14(4), 484–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1478210316637971

Mirrlees, T., & Ibaid, T. (2021). The virtual killing of Muslims: digital war games, Islamophobia, and the global war on terror. Islamophobia Studies Journal, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.13169/islastudj.6.1.0033

Reuters. (2023, October 18). Gaza hospital blast: what we know about the explosion. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/gaza-hospital-blast-what-we-know-about-explosion-2023-10-18/

Richard, L., Hagstrom, A., Casiano, L., & Pritchett, E. (2023, October 18). Israel continues to issue evacuation warnings in northern Gaza, hundreds killed in hospital blast. Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/live-news/october-17-2023-israel-hamas-war

Shamdasani, R. (2023, October 17). Latest: Occupied Palestinian Territory/Israel. OHCHR. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2023/10/latest-occupied-palestinian-territoryisrael

In 2006 statistics of pornography, it is said that every second $3,075.64 was being spent on pornography, and in every second 28,258 internet users were viewing pornography, and in that same second 372 internet users were typing adult terms into search engines, and every 39 minutes a new pornographic video was being created (Ropelato, 2014). Since then, pornography has only gotten bigger, and in 2023 it is estimated that between 50-99% of men indulge in porn consumption and 30-68% of women (Lampe, 2023). With such high rates of pornography consumption, it is quite the wonder how these statistics effect our personal relationships. This blog will provide a basis of understanding to the effects that pornography consumption is having on relationships.

First and foremost, it is important to understand the relationship between porn and our brain. When we enjoy an experience, taste, feeling, etc. dopamine the neurotransmitter for our reward center is activated. To put this in a way that is easy to understand, when you have your favorite piece of candy domain shortly increases baseline by 50%, when you have sex, it increases baseline by two times (Lampe, 2023). It is likely that the act of pornography is extremely similar to this two-time baseline increase. The problem occurs when repeated use occurs, and this high dopamine release makes it more difficult to do so in other interactions to be equal or higher than pornography consumption (Lampe, 2023). Overall, this can lead to issues in a relationship when one cannot enjoy the physical feelings due to a sense of numbness created by overconsumption of pornography. This can lead to lack of excitement, arousal and overall dopamine release.

Pornography can lead to unrealistic expectations in relationships, as well as strong sexual urges, infidelity, and decreased intimacy. In some cases, it could lead to infidelity. It is important to note that if individuals learn from observation, and pornography often is of fictitious scripts including infidelity, aggression, etc., wouldn’t you be led to believe that pornography can certainly have negative effects on your behavior? The sexual script theory theorizes that sex and relationships are informed by sexual scripts—cultural and interpersonal cues about normative sexual behavior (Rasmussen, Millar, & Trenchuk, 2018). So, when pornography viewers see sexual abuse, aggression, etc. on websites, they could very well be led to believe that this is how their behaviors should be during sexual encounters. A study done on the content of 190 pornographic videos concluded that only 9.7% of sexually implicit videos portray committed relationships, and 25.3% of videos portrayed infidelity (Rasmussen, Millar, & Trenchuk, 2018). Nearly twice the amount.

Overall, it is likely that behavior learned in pornographic videos can overflow into real life relationships. Ultimately, destroying intimacy and commitment. Additionally, there a notable change in dopamine levels that with repeated occurrence make it more difficult to reach such levels. Leading to lack of enjoyment in real relationships and during sexual encounters.

Works Cited:

Lampe, K. (2023). Retrieved from https://www.brainmatters.nl/en/pornography-a-closer-look/

Rasmussen, K. R., Millar, D., & Trenchuk, J. (2018). Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12119-018-9574-7

Ropelato, J. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.ministryoftruth.me.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/tmbvsburzynski.pdf

Social media’s impact on self-esteem is a complex and multifaceted issue. Research has shown that the relationship between social media use and self-esteem can be influenced by various factors, including individual characteristics, the nature of one’s online interactions, and the platforms themselves. While social media can have both positive and negative effects on self-esteem, the overall consensus suggests that it can indeed impact self-esteem.

Firstly, social media can positively impact self-esteem by providing a platform for self-expression and social connection. Engaging with social media can help individuals showcase their achievements, talents, and experiences, leading to increased self-esteem. For instance, receiving likes, comments, or positive feedback on posts can boost self-esteem by providing validation and a sense of belonging (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014). Moreover, social media can offer opportunities for individuals to join communities with shared interests and experiences, potentially enhancing their self-esteem by reducing feelings of social isolation (Perloff, 2014).

On the flip side, social media can negatively impact self-esteem. One common concern is the cultivation of social comparison. People often curate their online presence to highlight their best moments, which can lead to upward social comparison, where individuals compare themselves to others they perceive as more successful or attractive (Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). Such comparisons can lower self-esteem, particularly when individuals feel they fall short in comparison to their peers. Additionally, cyberbullying and online harassment can severely damage self-esteem, as they involve negative interactions and criticism that can harm an individual’s self-worth (Wright et al., 2016).

It is important to note that the impact of social media on self-esteem can vary depending on individual factors. People with pre-existing vulnerabilities, such as low self-esteem or mental health issues, may be more susceptible to the negative effects of social media (Primack et al., 2017). Therefore, it is not a one-size-fits-all scenario. The extent to which social media influences self-esteem will depend on personal characteristics and how individuals navigate and perceive their online experiences.

In conclusion, social media does have an impact on self-esteem, with the potential for both positive and negative effects. It can enhance self-esteem through self-expression and social connection but can also harm self-esteem through social comparison and online harassment. The influence of social media on self-esteem is complex and can vary greatly depending on individual differences and the nature of one’s online interactions. As social media continues to play a significant role in our lives, it is crucial for individuals to be mindful of how they engage with it and to promote positive and supportive online environments.

References:

Perloff, R. M. (2014). Social media effects on young women’s body image concerns: Theoretical perspectives and an agenda for research. Sex Roles, 71(11-12), 363-377.

Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Sidani, J. E., Whaite, E. O., Lin, L. Y., Rosen, D., … & Colditz, J. B. (2017). Social media use and perceived social isolation among young adults in the U.S. PLOS ONE, 12(8), e0182145.

Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2014). NetGirls: The Internet, Facebook, and body image concern in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 47(6), 630- 641.

Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 3(4), 206-222.

Wright, M. F., Wachs, S., Morrison, K. L., et al. (2016). Adolescents’ experiences of and responses to online and face-to-face bullying: An examination of psychosocial and physical health outcomes. Journal of Adolescent Health, 59(3), 305-311.

This week we have learned about the damaging effects of violent media, even though violence is in almost every single show and movie you see on tv or in theaters today. Although not a huge fan of the fighting and the gore, I love being scared, whether through tv shows and movies or even better, a good haunted house. Typically those types of media have some sort of a violence factor to them. So the question I have is when is it too young to be allowing our children or adolescents to view certain media, and do the age restrictions on movies and tv-shows actually have a valid reason for doing so? 

According to our textbook around 2/3 of all children’s shows contain violence ( Gruman et al., 2017). If this is the case then is it better to try and avoid the inevitable or should we allow our children to get the exposure? According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry American children watch an average of 4 hours of TV a day, leaving a lot of opportunity for violent viewing (AACAP, 2017). There have been numerous studies done on media violence with children and teenagers and the findings have been the same with that they can become immune to the horror and violence, they can start to believe violence is a way to solve problems, and they can even imitate the characters they have seen doing the violent acts. Now we know that tv-shows and movies provide us with some guidelines on how old someone should be when viewing the specific content. These are not only made to provide security to the companies releasing the media, but it is for the health of those viewing as well. 

So when is a good age to allow a child to view any kind of violent content, or maybe not allow it, but to be less restrictive? According to Tufts Medical Center, you should never allow a child who is under the age of 13 view a rated R movie, show, or game. Now rated R is not for anyone under the age of 17, but between the ages of 13-16 this is a very sensitive time and a time of maturity and the information that is being taken in at this pivotal point is very important (TMC, n.d.). Although violence is almost impossible to not view in the media it is still important to be aware of the consequences of age and exposure. 

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.  

n/a, A. (2017). TV Violence and Children. TV violence and children. https://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/Children-And-TV-Violence-013.aspx 

n/a, T. (n.d.). Movies (R-rated): Protecting your child. Tufts Medical Center Community Care. https://hhma.org/healthadvisor/pa-rrmov-hhg/  

The authors of the chapter focus their attention on pornography and the consequential attitudes associated with viewing pornography. As there were experimental designs discussed, we can infer causation of differences in attitudes from viewership which leads to the question: is it such a bad thing if attitudes are different?

The contrast in attitudes is between what the authors describe as family values wherein there is a familial love and that is where the ideology implies is where sex belongs. On the other hand, the shift away from family values disregards the family centered ideology and toward a more selfish (not in a bad way, I would argue) view of sex that is fulfilling needs without forming an emotional connection.

The authors specifically refer to a study completed by Zillman and Bryant (1986) who found that compared to those who watched not pornographic videos, men and women who watched pornography for the study reported being less sexually satisfied, more accepting of myths (that were not explained in the chapter) related to health risks of sexual repression, more accepting of nonexclusive sexual intimacy, more accepting of premarital and extramarital sexual intimacy, and judged the importance of being faithful (also not explained) as less important. They went on to add these people also reported wanting fewer children (pp. 174).

Are these shifts in attitude morally wrong or are they sex positive? Are they a negative consequence of viewing pornography or are they more accepting of lifestyles that do not play by the Puritanical rules for sexual behavior? Sex positivity is explained as not a promotion of sex, but an ideology of acceptance that experiences and interests should be able to be explored without judgement (“Sex-Positivity,” 2023). It is my belief that this section of the chapter read as overtly not sex-positive and instead in a slut-shaming tone. Goblet and Glowacz (2021) define slut shaming as “the stigmatization of an individual based on his or her appearance, sexual availability, and actual or perceived sexual behavior” (p. 15). With theses definitions in mind, I would like the reader to consider the following example, the definition and explanation offered for nonviolent pornography by Ewoldsen and Roskos (2017)

… is nonaggressive explicit sexual activity typically among casual acquaintances. Neither men nor women are ported as having feelings of compassion and empathy… let alone self-respect. Instead, participants are portrayed as having one primary interest – satisfying their sexual desires and fantasies… (pp. 171)

Again, I would ask the reader, is this an unbiased definition/explanation of the concept? I would argue that it is biased against those who see sex as a basic human need, be it between a married couple or a pair who just met at a bar. Of course, the reader can make their own interpretation of the highlighted information and the section overall. I would urge the reader to consider if the shift in attitudes is as negative as it is framed by the authors and form their own conceptualization of acceptance of others’ experiences, interests, and actions.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017) Applying Social Psychology to the Media. In Ewoldsen, D., & Roskos, B. (Eds.), Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (pp. 155-188). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591

Goblet, M., & Glowacz, F. (2021). Slut shaming in adolescence: A violence against girls and its impact on their health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126657

Sex-Positivity. (2023). Sexuality Education Resource Centre MB. https://serc.mb.ca/sexual-health-info/the-basics/what-is-sexuality/sex-positivity/

Violence in TV and video games can cause people to imitate violent acts they’ve seen by increasing their ‘repertoire’, so to speak. It rewards people for being violent, and also has a very subtle effect of pushing people to choose violent behaviors when they could have made better choices (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 170).

According to Cultivation Theory, heavy exposure to TV is a primary socializing agent, which means that people learn their schemas and view of the world through it. This means that the exposure to violence, stereotypical portrayals of women and races, as well as materialistic advertisements, affect heavy watchers subliminally and that they tend to view the world as more dangerous or hostile than light watchers (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 169).

This does bring up a curious thought in me, however. Could this be a reason why police officers seem prone to violence or ego posturing rather than law enforcement? Could this also be a reason why the defense and intelligence community is increasingly hypersensitive?

As a defense contractor, I’m often shown the effects and aftermaths of war. We are constantly interacting with people who have seen true atrocity, and in some cases, we experience it ourselves as a fact of our career choices. It is possible that our exposure due to the nature of our jobs is a part of why we are slightly more prone to violent thoughts or behaviors. It would be interesting to see the effects of having served in the military or as law enforcement on the way that these people see the world.

I, for one, believe the world to be a dark, horrible place that is buffered only by civilian society’s ignorance of what it takes to create their comfort and perceived freedoms. Could my worldview have been in part the creation of my exposure to the violence of war?

Sources:

Today, we as a society across the world consume media in what seems to be at all times of the day. Whether we see a TV at home, at work, at a restaurant, a gas station, etc., it is always around us. This isn’t necessarily a bad thing until we realize what kind of material is being showcased to us. How often is it that we see an act of violence? In real life or in the media? Of course there is a big difference between the two but there still are effects on us from being exposed to that image in the media more than we realize. Studies have shown that watching television violence has effects in people such as increase in aggression and increase in violent crimes such as homicides. 

There was a quasi-experimental study conducted in 1973 which took place in “Notel,” Canada. Children were analyzed after being exposed to television for the first time in their lives. The results throughout the experiment in this town were compared to two other towns “Unitel”  and “Multitel” which had both already been exposed to television before Notel was. After the comparison of  “both before and two years after the introduction of TV to Notel” (Gruman, pg. 159) the analysis was concluded. They found that “rates of both physical aggression and verbal aggression increased dramatically in Notel children after the introduction of TV.” (Gruman, pg. 160). This study displayed regular TV of its time and not just violence, however, the amount of violence within regular TV broadcasting still resulted in increased aggression in children. 

Another quasi-experimental study on TV violence effects was conducted by Centerwall in 1989. They had compared the U.S. and Canada’s early exposure to TV from the 1950’s  to South-Africa being introduced to TV in 1975. Their study had shown that “following the introduction of TV in each of these three countries, the homicide rates remained fairly constant for roughly 10-12 years, but then doubled by the 15th year.” (Gruman, pg.160). They claim that TV was responsible for this increase in homicides in these three countries. And their answer for the 15 year gap in the doubling of homicides is “the effect of the introduction of TV on violent homicides may have been delayed until children who were 3 or 4 years old when TV was introduced were old enough to be committing acts of violence – typically in their late adolescent years – approximately 15 years after the introduction of TV.” (Gruman, pg.160). However, Ceneterwall did overestimate the responsibility TV had on the homicides and did not consider factors that could have changed the results. Nonetheless, I still believe this experiment provides proficient evidence of TV violence having the influence on people committing a violent crime like homicide. 

In conclusion, these studies have shown that TV influences people’s actions after they have been exposed to it. We have seen from the experiment in Notel that TV promotes increases of aggression in children. And we see the later effects of that in Centerwall’s experiment in South-Africa where children are exposed to TV and in later life they double the amount of homicides when they are old enough to be physically able to commit those crimes. These quasi-experiments have proof that the violence in TV influences people to be more aggressive and more violent. 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.

The Internet age has made it easier for us to flirt online and more difficult to do so in person. Of course, this has a great impact on human behavior for the formation of the modern family. In previous generations, finding a partner was a subject that required a certain amount of art, even more complicated for those who were more shy. New technologies allow those who are not so attractive in the art of conquest to find a potential partner couple, this has no limits, and the positive aspects must be balanced with the negative aspects. The truth is that as technology advances in our modern era, personal tape is being lost and we only use technological tools to avoid making the effort of socialization so important for the development of human behavior

Some important data to illustrate how the human approach is being managed through social networks: the online dating services that are now responsible for introducing 1 in 5 current couples and 1 in 6 married couples to each other (Chadwick Martin-Bailey, 2010). According to some studies carried out by newspapers 10 years ago, they reflect that in 1995, people who found love through digital platforms accounted for only 2%. and almost 40% of couples are known through the Internet. According to a study carried out by sociologists Michael Rosenfeld and Sonia Hause, from the University of Stanford, and Reuben Thomas, from Arizona State University, 39% of heterosexual couples and 60% of homosexuals met thanks to the Internet.

The Internet has broken barriers such as class or ethnicity. On the other side of the coin, we find that flirting from home also means not having to show emotions or, being able to be more daring. This is a topic that still has a lot to cut since it is real data, but what is certain is that the impact on human behavior and the complexity of the nature of couple relationships is something that is a permanent topic among psychologists. The changes are rapid and overwhelming not only in the way we behave but also in the way we communicate, using these technologies can reinforce new social behaviors and ways of thinking, including both desirable and undesirable behavior. This phenomenon of social networks continues to grow, and the data says so as of August 2011, there are 750 million active users of Facebook, the largest of the social media websites with roughly 50% of those users logging in on any particular day (Facebook, 2011), that means that on a day, roughly 375 million users are logging into a single website connecting with other people. This phenomenon of the new generations, of course, has a large number of detractors but apart from that it does not stop and the young people of the future are likely to know their partners in other countries very far from where they originate, certainly among the benefits that we can mention. It is that social networks help break down cultural and racial stigmas, which is a great advantage for societies of the future where these types of barriers do not exist, which will contribute to the development of humanity where prejudices do not exist.

Reference
Chadwick Martin-Bailey. (2010). The Evolution of Dating: Match.com and Chadwick Martin Bailey Behavioral Studies Uncover a Fundamental Shift. https://www.lavanguardia.com/tecnologia/20190214/46454394015/ligar-parejas-internet-aplicaciones-tinder-sociologia-tecnologia.html?facet=amp

Facebook. (2011). Statistics.

Media coverage plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions of the government, influencing how individuals view government policies, initiatives, and actions. This influence can have a discouraging effect on political engagement and civic participation, potentially leading to disengagement from the political process. The framing of media stories, therefore, becomes crucial in determining the overall impact on public attitudes.

For instance, consider a scenario where the media extensively covers a government’s plan to implement social welfare programs for disadvantaged communities, but primarily focuses on the program’s perceived shortcomings. This negative portrayal can significantly diminish public support for the program, fostering resistance to similar initiatives in the future.

Exploring the effects of media framing and its influence on public attitudes and behaviors is crucial in comprehending how individuals interpret negative media messages and how these interpretations shape their perceptions and actions regarding government policies. By understanding these dynamics, policymakers and communication experts can work toward implementing more balanced and informed media narratives that foster a more nuanced and accurate understanding of government actions among the public. This, in turn, can promote active civic engagement and support for policies aimed at social welfare and community development.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Aside from being a college student, I work full time in a nursing home, and truthfully it is a very eye-opening experience. My residents are mostly aged 70-100 and every time I use my cell phone at work at least one of them mentions how they would never be able to understand how to use it. This is because when they were younger, they did not have access to the internet at all, and if they did it was very few and far between and not at all to the degree in which we use it today. Seeing how so many people live their lives with no technology, aside from a TV and possibly a flip-phone, has made me realize how addicted the younger generations are to technology. Now, this is a concept that has been brought up for years, especially with the developments of social media apps. Yet, I think that many people fail to realize how detrimental the internet could be for mental health.

In this weeks lesson we learned about miscommunication and how the Fundamental Attribution Error can lead people to have incorrect views about others and their messages. I think that this can also be a major contributor to cell phone addiction in young adults. Think about how many times you have seen a post online or a news article where you second guessed the meaning behind it, or what the writer was actually intending to say. It can be very hard to properly interpret online messages without the inclusion of emotions or body language. This could potentially be a reason why so many individuals are addicted to their devices. Perhaps you see a post about a new celebrity couple and you are curious to know if it is true. You can then read the article, look at the social media pages of the individuals, message your friends, read public comments, etc. Yet, consider all of the time you just spent researching a topic that truly has no importance to your life. The desire to be “in the loop” with not only celebrities but also people you know leads to more time spent online.

Another way that people spend excessive amounts of time online can also be related back to the Fundamental Attribution Error. For example, if you message a friend, family member, co-worker, etc with a question and the response needs further clarification you could end up spending way more time online than you initially intended. Unfortunately it can be very easy for people to become encapsulated by the internet and the end up losing track of time. This could lead to lack of productivity, forgetfulness, and in some cases depression and anxiety. The Economic Times released an article explaining how using cell phones can cause your brain to release dopamine and oxytocin which can create a sense of attachment, essentially explaining in a scientific manner how people are dependent on technology. Unfortunately, while these “happy chemicals” are released, the world is still moving around you and a lack of productivity and consumption of negative content online can increase depression especially in young adults, explained further in an article by Butler Hospital.

To conclude, the addiction to technology can have many negative affects on mental health and your overall life. Overuse of the internet and social media can cause depression and interfere with the quality of relationships. Miscommunication can also be derived from addiction to devices and can cause further issues. It is very important for people to take breaks from technology and enjoy physical activity, brain stimulation, and nature to fully develop a strong quality of life outside of the internet.

References:

England, C. N. (n.d.). Is your phone affecting your mental health?. Butler Hospital. https://www.butler.org/blog/phone-affecting-your-mental-health#:~:text=A%20study%20among%20teenagers%20on,part%20in%20non%2Dscreen%20activities.

True crime stories infiltrate our lives. Between news stories, podcasts, documentaries on every streaming service, and entire television stations devoted to true crime, we are bombarded with tales of murder and brutality. The people most drawn to these stories seem surprising. Overwhelmingly, women are attracted to true crime stories. The question is why are women so obsessed with true crime and is it negatively impacting our lives?

Studies indicate men are more likely to commit violent crimes (Gruman et al, 2016). They are also more likely to be the victim of crime (Vicary & Fraley, 2010, p. 82). So why are women so invested in true crime documentaries and podcasts? A recent study (Vicary & Fraley, 2010) may have some answers. Based on the results, one reason women seek out true crime stories is self-preservation. The study reinforced the hypothesis that women choose true crime to understand the psychological motives (Vicary & Fraley, 2010, p. 84) of the murderer as well as learning tips to defend themselves in the event that they become victims of crime themselves (Vicary & Fraley, 2010, p. 84).

While depictions of violence in the media have negative consequences such as short-term increases in violent behavior in people (Gruman et al, 2016) as well as desensitization (Gruman et al, 2016), this study shows there are positive effects, too. If women are learning survival techniques, as the study suggests, then there are some benefits to viewing violence in the media.

References

Vicary, A. M., & Fraley, R. C. (2010). Captured by True Crime: Why Are Women Drawn to Tales of Rape, Murder, and Serial Killers? Social Psychological and Personality Science, 1(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550609355486

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Coutts, L. M., Gruman, J. A., & Schneider, F. W. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Sage Publications.

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Most of us are familiar with pornography, whether it is online or offline. The popularity of porn has grown over recent years due to online accessibility. If you do not know what pornography is, it can be defined as “any sexually explicit material that you can find offline (magazines, DVDs, peep shows) or online on the Internet (text, audio, visual)” (Gruman et al, 2017). There are many different forms of pornography, but in this essay I will be focusing on three forms; erotica, nonviolent pornography, and violent pornography. As we will see in this essay, certain forms of pornography can be extremely damaging to the viewer.

Erotica and nonviolent pornography are not as damaging as other forms. Erotica is “nonaggressive sexual activity between willing, sensitive, and caring partners” (Gruman et al, 2017). Erotica is probably the most popular or well known form of pornography. Nonviolent pornography is “nonaggressive explicit sexual activity typically among casual acquaintances” (Gruman et al, 2017). These definitions may seem very similar, but unlike erotica, nonviolent pornography does not show the men and women as having compassion or empathy for one another. Lastly, we have violent pornography. Violent pornography ‘portrays violence or coercion that is juxtaposed with, or an integral part of, explicit sexual activities with an underlying theme of dominance” (Gruman et al, 2017). All of these forms of pornography can have damaging effects to the viewer.

How is nonviolent pornography damaging to the viewer? The U.S. Department of Justice produced a report that showed that substantial exposure to nonviolent pornography is related to increases in sexual violence and sexual coercion. If there is no violence of coercion in erotica or nonviolent pornography, why is there an increase in sexual deviance? Many people become desensitized to what they are viewing, causing a need to find more intense videos. The more intense these videos become, the higher the likelihood of developing deviant tendencies becomes. Pornography makes horrible situations appealing to viewers, and causes the person to believe that these behaviors are normal and common. As we are beginning to see, any form of pornography can be damaging, not solely violent portrayals.

If nonviolent pornography is damaging, how much worse is violent pornography? Combining sex and violence is especially harmful to viewers. Effects of violent pornography on viewers includes “a) increases in sexual arousal, b) increases in rape fantasies, c) decreases in sensitivity to the embedded violent sexual acts, d) increases in acceptance of rape myths and violence toward women, and e) increases in tolerance toward rapists” (Gruman et al, 2017). All of these effects are extremely damaging, not only to the viewer, but to the women whom they are close to. Even though viewing violent pornography does not cause actual violent acts, these thoughts are precursors to committing violent acts against women. Since porn is so accessible, it is very dangerous for young adults to view this content.

Although pornography does not directly cause violent acts, it can be the push that sets violent tendencies in motion. Men are most affected by these videos, so it is important to monitor what you are viewing and think about the consequences that may occur. Informing individuals about the consequences of viewing violent pornography is a step in the right direction, as it causes individuals to have more empathy towards the women involved.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W. & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks; CA: Sage Publications.

Although I vaguely remember when me, and my siblings watched the original Exorcist (1973) movie , maybe I was too young to even understand or comprehend what I was watching. Fast forward 20 years in the future I am having a conversation with my brother, who is only 4 years older than me, and he tells me how scared that movie made him and how it still effects his mental health, I was shocked to hear that my grown up adult brother is still scared of a movie, which I thought was so stupid and unbelievable.

It all came back to me in a flash when I was reading the textbook on the effects of violent media on kids. It made me think why is that that although I was younger, it effected my brother much more than me. It makes me think that Horror and disturbing media can effects kids differently, everyone has different personalities and mental capabilities, and although some kids will not be effected by the disturbing material, and will be able to process the information as not disturbing, There will be other kids might get deeply affected and might have long term effects of stress and anxiety.

As we read on our textbook Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems, children who get frightened of the media can experience nightmares, sleeplessness,, extreme stress and even depression. Movies like Exorcist can effects peoples mental health very deeply, people have experienced denial and numbing, and extreme stress after watching horror movies. Kids have also experienced fear of the dark, and ghosts, nightmares and panic attacks.

Although these ramifications are serious, research suggests, that these are just the short term effects of  exposure to horror. Not everyone suffers from the  long term effects of exposure to horror, usually it only effects people who may have underlying mental issues, and exposure to disturbing media works as a  catalyst. (Martin, 2019)

Therefore it is necessary that we take caution when consuming horror, or exposing young kids to horror. I wish there were parental guidelines when I was a child, and my brother wasn’t exposed to the media he wasn’t capable to comprehend.

Coutts, L.M., Gruman, J.A. and Schneider, F.W. (2016) Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications.

Martin, G.N. (2019) (why) do you like scary movies? A review of the empirical research on psychological responses to Horror films, Frontiers in psychology. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6813198/ (Accessed: 18 October 2023).

Media, in all its forms, influences how we perceive the world around us. Whether through television, social media, or print, media has the power to shape our perception of events, people, and issues. As with many things, its effects are complex and impact our understanding of reality positively and negatively.

Media also plays a crucial role in setting the agenda for public discourse. The issues and topics the media cover can shape public perception by emphasizing certain subjects while ignoring others. Media’s influence on perception is evident in the way it can magnify or trivialize issues. For instance, coverage of specific events can lead to overemphasizing their significance, while critical issues may be overlooked, affecting how people prioritize and perceive these topics. An excellent example of this is discussed by Gruman et al. (2017), in the early 1980s in the United States citizens was not at all concerned with drug use as a problem in the country. Coincidentally, from the mid to late 1980s, media coverage of drug-related issues spiked, as did public concern for it. On the national political survey, drug use concerns went from zero mentions to the number one concern for over 50% of people.

Furthermore, the media can influence our perception by framing stories in particular ways. The framing of an issue in a news story can dictate how people interpret and respond to it. For example, if a newspaper article writes about a robbery, the choice of words influences how we react to the story. If the article states it was a white man who robbed the bank versus a black man, or they mentioned the robbery happened in a low-income area versus a low-income area, our reaction will vary depending on your personal experiences and the media you have been exposed to. 

In today’s digital age, social media platforms add a twist to perception. Before social media, a viewer had limited control over the content they saw. Of course, you could choose which shows and movies to watch, but you could not control them. Now, these platforms allow “people [to] customize news portals on the Internet so that they receive news stories on topics that they are already interested in instead of the media outlets determining what stories are given the most prominence” (Gruman et al., 2017, p.182). Consequently,  individuals find themselves in echo chambers, where they are only exposed to information and viewpoints that align with their existing beliefs, reinforcing preconceived notions and potentially fostering polarization. The ability to curate one’s own media consumption can lead to information bubbles that limit exposure to diverse perspectives, which can significantly affect one’s perception of reality

The effects of media on perception are multifaceted. It can reflect and shape societal values, beliefs, and attitudes. To navigate the influence of media on perception, individuals need to engage with media critically, consume a diverse range of sources, and remain aware of the potential for bias and framing in media content. Media organizations and platforms are also responsible for ensuring that the information they share serves the public interest rather than distorting or polarizing public perception.

Reference

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

What is antisocial? When thinking of it, some would think they’re not sociable. They even make merchandise such as “Anti Social Social Club,” giving people a sense of belonging to not being an extroverted person.

Besides all that, antisocial in a psychological perspective is the disregard of social norms and responsibilities; those who have antisocial tendencies tend to have a deeply ingrained and rigid dysfunctional thoughts that can lead to them being delinquent or having criminal behavior who would not have remorse (Fisher & Hany, 2023). Some studies show strong evidence that antisocial personality disorders represent a significant clinical risk for violence (Filov, 2019). But is antisocial behavior the same as an antisocial personality disorder? Well, it can be in a general term, though antisocial personality disorder is a diagnosis in clinical psychology. They can be mistaken for the same reason, but one is a more severe condition.

In this post, we will focus on antisocial personality disorder. Though to note that people can exhibit antisocial behavior because of having abnormalities in the brain, making them have issues with their judgement, planning and impulse control (Aggarwal, 2013). In our book, it was mentioned that there is a correlation between antisocial attitudes and criminal behavior, and it is in the range of .35 to .40, making a positive relationship between the two issues (Gruman et al., 2016). 

Before going on TRIGGER WARNING, for an example below, proceed cautiously. Mental disorders and violence have been a reoccurring topic. By watching many crime documentaries, I have seen a ratio of people with mental disorders to get a lighter sentence due to their case. For a case, we will discuss a male named Bobby Joe Helm. In the 80s, he was stalking, breaking into their house, and doing non-consensual activities with females. Before the incidents, he had no criminal history, but when interrogated, he displayed several warnings of antisocial personality disorder; after the incident, he had no remorse or guilt, and, in the end, he was given a light sentence (Bowling, 2016).

What can be done to lessen it? Studies have shown that a way to manage a person with antisocial personality disorder is by early treatment intervention with conduct disorder in children as it is the least costly and most effective with treating antisocial personality disorder; it also states as of right now, there is not much evidence of intervention that would help in the case for adults (Fisher & Hany, 2023). But some studies show (1) cognitive behavioral treatment; patients are urged to identify harmful or violent mental processes and determine the reality of those processes as they examine antisocial tendencies and potentially improve the approaches to their behavior and thoughts (2) Schema-based treatment, which promotes swapping out negative thinking patterns for positive ones. These treatments could be effective for those with antisocial tendencies (Aggarwal, 2013).

In the end, there is some way to help people who have these antisocial personality traits by having therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy, schema-based treatment and early intervention for children that are under suspicion they might have. These thoughts and behaviors can be managed by getting help. I hope it won’t be too late to change their behavior before having a criminal offense that needs to be taken to court. It is always a good thing to have a barrier to stop the proceeding of a crime in the future.

Also in addition, I would like to clarify if a person who shows antisocial behavior or has antisocial personality disorder, doesn’t mean they would be criminals that isn’t set in stone, this is just a notice that other individuals have realized when they do assess people who committed crimes.

Resources:

• Aggarwal, I. (2013). The Role of Antisocial Personality Disorder and Antisocial Behavior in Crime. Inquiries Journal, 5(09). http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1658/the-role-of-antisocial-personality-disorder-and-antisocial-behavior-in-crime
• Bowling, D. (2016, July 4). Antisocial Personality Disorders and Criminal Behaviors. ResearchGate; unknown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304784217_Antisocial_Personality_Disorders_and_Criminal_Behaviors
• Filov, I. (2019). Antisocial Personality Traits as a Risk Factor of Violence between Individuals with Mental Disorders. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences, 7(4), 657–662. https://doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2019.146
• Fisher, K. A., & Hany, M. (2023, May 8). Antisocial Personality Disorder. Retrieved October 13, 2023, from Nih.gov website: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK546673/#:~:text=Antisocial%20personality%20disorder%20(ASPD)%20is,criminal%20behavior%20with%20no%20remorse
•  Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US). https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781506353968

This week’s lesson covered multiple approaches/theories to explain the behavior of criminals. One theory stated that criminal behavior could be partially accredited to genetics, psychophysiology, neurological functioning, and biochemistry (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2017). This biological approach can be a route of examination to uncover the question, why? One intense criminal whose actions can be accredited to the biological theory of criminal behavior is Charles Whitman.

In 1966 Charles Whitman went on a killing rampage, he first murdered his wife, mother, then climbed the University of Texas at Austin’s, clock tower where he committed a mass murder spree (Darby, Horn, Cushman, & Fox, 2018). While this mas killing was a shock to all, an even more shocking discovery was found when a tumor was located in the prefrontal cortex (Ferguson, 2010).  Each region of the brain has different roles, and the amygdala is highly connected to our emotions, especially fear, and processing emotions. It believed that this tumor applied pressure on certain brain regions (amygdala) potentially contributing to these violent acts. (Ferguson, 2010) According to the biological theory of criminal behavior, it is a wonder that Whitman, a student and an ex-Marine, suddenly committed such a heinous act.

The question remains, is this tumor on the region of the brain known as the amygdala the cause of Whitman’s spree. It is very well possible that this tumor made changes in his brain function making him angrier and more irrational then otherwise before. Although, it still can be hard to pinpoint if this was the true cause.

Looking at other cases, it leads to believe that biological aspects of health attribute to a pattern of criminal behavior. For instance, Ted Bundy mass serial killer claimed that pornography molded him into a killer, Andrea Yates who drowned her children was found not guilty for reasons of insanity, professional wrestler Chris Benoit, strangles his wife and son to death, then committed suicide, was presumed to have had “roid rage” which was never confirmed, but after an autopsy it was clear Benoit had serious brain damage (Ferguson, 2010). While it is not every criminal that you can pinpoint a biological explanation, there does seem to be quite the apparent trend.

All in all, many believe that violence is a learned behavior, but the truth is that it is very well possible that biological defects can greatly affect the way we behave. So, although the murders of 1966 perpetrated by Charles Whitman was a huge loss, it also opened the eyes to the possible effects of biological implications on criminal behavior.

Works Cited

Darby, R. R., Horn, A., Cushman, F., & Fox, M. D. (2018). Lesion network localization of criminal behavior. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5776958/

Ferguson, C. J. (2010). Violent crime: Clinical and social implications. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Police investigation interviews are a critical component of the criminal justice system. They allow law enforcement to gather information about crimes victims, witnesses, and suspects committed. This information can be used to identify suspects, develop leads, and build cases for prosecution. Police investigation interviews can also help to ensure that innocent people are not wrongly accused of crimes. By interviewing witnesses and suspects, investigators can better understand what happened and who is responsible. This can help to prevent miscarriages of justice.

In addition to their practical benefits, police investigation interviews play an essential role in safeguarding the rights of both the accused and the victim. By law, suspects must be informed of their Miranda rights before being interrogated. These rights include the right to remain silent and the right to have an attorney present. Suspects must also voluntarily waive their Miranda rights for their statements to be admissible in court. Victims of crime also have certain rights during police investigations. For example, they have the right to be informed of the status of their case and to provide input on the investigation. Victims also have the right to be protected from retaliation by the suspect.

While police investigation interviews are essential to the criminal justice system, some controversial aspects exist. One concern is that coercive interrogation tactics can lead to false confessions. False confessions occur when an innocent person confesses to a crime they did not commit. This can happen when suspects undergo prolonged interrogation, threats, or physical abuse. Another concern is that police investigation interviews can be biased. For example, studies have shown that police officers are more likely to suspect and interrogate African Americans and Latinos than white suspects. This can lead to racial disparities in the criminal justice system.

In conclusion, police investigation interviews are essential to the criminal justice system. However, there are some controversial aspects of the interview process, such as the risk of false confessions and racial bias. Several steps can be taken to improve the police investigation interview process and reduce the risk of these problems.

Steps to improve the police investigation interview process:

Several things can be done to improve the police investigation interview process and reduce the risk of false confessions. One crucial step is to train police officers in non-coercive interrogation techniques. These techniques elicit accurate and reliable information from suspects without resorting to threats or violence. Another critical step is ensuring that all suspects are informed of their Miranda rights before interrogating. Suspects should also have the right to have an attorney present during interrogation. If a suspect waives their Miranda rights, the interrogation should be recorded to be reviewed later. Finally, it is essential to hold police officers accountable for misconduct during interrogations. If a police officer uses coercive tactics to obtain a confession, that confession should be inadmissible in court.

Additional thoughts:

In recent years, there has been a growing movement to reform the police investigation interview process. Several high-profile cases of false confessions and racial disparities in the criminal justice system have fueled this movement. One of the critical goals of the reform movement is to reduce the risk of false confessions. This can be done by training police officers in non-coercive interrogation techniques and recording all interrogations. Another goal of the reform movement is to address racial bias in the police investigation interview process. This can be done by providing police officers with training on implicit bias and developing policies and procedures that ensure all suspects are treated fairly. The reform of the police investigation interview process is complex and challenging. However, ensuring that the criminal justice system is fair and just for everyone is essential.

Reference:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

One of the earliest known American prisons was established in 1705 (Donovan, 2023) under the name New-Gate Prison. The site, located in Connecticut, operated until 1827 and had a cavern capacity of 100 prisoners. During colonial times institutions like these were used to detain individuals awaiting trial or punishment (Meskell, 1999). Historically, punishments for crimes could often be quite cruel by today’s standards; forced labor, public restraint, flogging, maiming, and death were routine penalties for crimes of varying severity to deter repeat offenses (2023). Prisons were thus comparatively perceived as the more humane consequence and favored by the public. 

Over time, the U.S. prison system evolved, and the concept of incarceration as a means of punishment became more formalized (Chennault & Sbicca, 2022) with the model being deterrence from future criminal behavior. In the 1800s, Americans expressed a desire for malefactors to be transformed into functioning citizens through the prison system rather than simply “detered” from future misdeeds. Therefore, the 19th and 20th centuries stepped away from deterrence and chiefly operated in a rehabilitative spirit (Duxbury, 2023) that gave inmates resources for change, such as treatment for their criminality, which was viewed as a medical disease at the time (2022).

However, in the 1970s, there was a significant shift in the criminal justice ideology and policy that governed prisons. This change is largely marked by Robert Martinson, an American sociologist, who published a study that criticized the effectiveness of the rehabilitation process. Martinson (1974) reviewed 231 studies of prison rehabilitative programs and concluded that treating offenders was predominately ineffective because “nothing works.” Offenders simply can never overcome their criminal tendencies. These arguments found widespread acceptance not only among the prevailing criminology scholars but also conservative political ideologies of the 1970s and 1980s. Critics, however, pointed out that Martinson had published his interpretation of the data without the consent of his collaborators and that he only included analysis of underfunded and untrained treatment programs while principally ignoring the efficacious ones (Hollin, 2000). Still, the media latched hold of his views and the country moved toward more punitive approaches, such as the “get tough on crime” policies and mandatory minimum sentences, which reduced the emphasis on rehabilitation in favor of punishment and deterrence (Gruman et al., 2016). President Richard Nixon’s “War on Drugs” heavily stigmatized and criminalized drug-use as a grave offense (Cullen, 1989) such that thousands of inmates were added to the prison system. It didn’t matter that Martinson later retracted his initial findings in 1979 after reviewing his erroneous study; the damage had been done. Another pivotal moment occurred in the 1989 Supreme Court Case Mistretta v. United States, where federal “guidelines” sidelined rehabilitation as a significant consideration in sentencing offenders (Dowden & Andrews, 2000). Defendants were instead sentenced primarily based on the nature of the crime committed, without regard to factors such as their amenability to treatment, personal history, efforts toward self-rehabilitation, or alternative sentencing options. 

The U.S. incarceration rate has more than tripled since the 1970s (Chennault & Sbicca, 2022) and it is now the second largest prison system in the world with 1.68 million prisoners (Okonkwo et al., n.d.). Defunding rehabilitation in our penal systems strongly correlates with these increases in prison populations and recidivism. Twenty percent of released U.S prisoners commit a new violent offense within three years of their release (Yukhnenko et al., 2019). Contemporary discussion on the judicial system has been focused on how to keep people out of prison, but it is further necessary to de-emphasize the retribution model in favor of readopting rehabilitation as the model to address the major problems with our existing prison system. 

Citations

Chennault, C., & Sbicca, J. (2022). Prison agriculture in the United States: racial capitalism and the disciplinary matrix of exploitation and rehabilitation. Agriculture and Human Values, 40(1), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-022-10346-x

Cullen, F.T., & Gendreau, P. (1989). The effectiveness of correctional rehabilitation. In L. Goodstein & D.L. MacKenzie (Eds.), The American prison: Issues in research policy (pp 23-24). New York: Plenum.

Donovan, A. (2023, October 5). Notorious New-Gate Prison – Connecticut History | A CTHumanities project. Connecticut History | a CTHumanities Project – Stories about the people, traditions, innovations, and events that make up Connecticut’s rich history. Retrieved October 10, 2023, from https://connecticuthistory.org/notorious-new-gate-prison/

Dowden, C., & Andrews, D.A. (2000). Effective correctional treatment and violent re-offending: A meta-analysis. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 42 , 449-467.

Duxbury, S. W. (2023). Peculiar institution? The Legacy of Slavery and prison expansion in the United States, 1970–2015. Justice Quarterly, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/07418825.2023.2188073

Hollin, C.R. (2000). To treat of not to treat? A historical perspective. In C.R. Hollin (Ed.), Handbook of offender assessment and treatment (pp 3-15), Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.

Martinson, R. (1974, Spring). What Works?-Questions and Answers About Prison Reform. The Public Interest, 35, 22. https://ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/what-works-questions-answers-about-prison-reform/docview/1298113963/se-2

Meskell, M. W. (1999). An American Resolution: The History of Prisons in the United States from 1777 to 1877. Stanford Law Review, 51(4), 839. https://doi.org/10.2307/1229442

Okonkwo, N. E., Aguwa, U. T., Jang, M., Barré, I., Page, K. R., Sullivan, P. S., Beyrer, C., & Baral, S. (n.d.). COVID-19 and the US response: accelerating health inequities. BMJ Evidence-based Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2020-111426

Yukhnenko, D., Sridhar, S., & Fazel, S. (2019). A systematic review of criminal recidivism rates worldwide: 3-year update. Wellcome Open Research, 4, 28. https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.14970.2

When considering the application of social psychology to criminal behavior, we can look at two distinct approaches: upstream interventions and downstream interventions. Upstream interventions seek to address a potential issue, while downstream interventions seek to address the consequences of an issue that has come to fruition. Downstream interventions could be things like rehabilitation of people who served a prison sentence. The crime has already taken place, it cannot be undone. Upstream intervention could be addressing the origins or risk factors of criminal behavior and taking action before the crime takes place. The following narrative will use a local news story for the application of relevant social psychological theory.

The story in question comes from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S., where two separate groups of children reported attempts of luring them into adults’ vehicle with the promise of candy. This of course is a serious offense but was determined to be an incredibly misinformed teenage prank. Allegedly, the suspects are teens who offered the children candy to get in their van as their idea of a joke, and consequences for the joke have yet to be determined (Yorgey, 2023).

Technically, since the teens are not being charged there has been no crime. However, it is reasonable to question if the actions can be chalked up to a victimless prank (that is if the children who thought they were being lured are not traumatized from the incident) or if there is something more deviant at hand. Day and Marion (2017) discuss a developmental lens to risk factors for criminal behavior, originally proposed by Andrews and Bonta (2016), could be applied to the teens in question if their information was made public knowledge which it has not. The eight risk factors are as follows:

An early age of onset for antisocial behavior, temperamental and personal characteristics that are conducive to criminal activity …, antisocial attitudes, values, and beliefs, association with procriminal peers and isolation from noncriminal associates, negative parenting and family experiences …, low levels of school or vocational achievement, poor use of leisure time and low levels of involvement in prosocial leisure pursuits and recreational activities, and/or abuse of drugs and/or alcohol (p. 292)

Presence of multiple risk factors, coupled with the presence of a criminal-adjacent act, could make the teens candidates for intervention targeting the risk factors and optimally decreasing the likelihood of escalations in behaviors.

Perhaps the application of a model of criminal behavior to a teenage prank blows the incident out of proportion, but the atypical hybrid nature of the crime-not-crime creates an interesting paradigm where interventions could be considered up or downstream. Regarding intervention, the stance of the writer is that it is almost always better to be safe than sorry. At the very least, the teens could benefit from taking accountability for their actions issuing an apology to the children who were victims of their prank. Some sort of intervention focused on risk factors and increasing awareness of consequences could also prove beneficial to the development of the teens who, objectively, had a vast number of options for better pranks.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). In Day, D. M. & Marion, S. B. (Eds.) Applying Social Psychology to the Criminal Justice System (pp. 287-320). SAGE Publications, Inc, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591

Yorgey, T. (2023, October 12). Police: Teens behind prank of attempted child luring in O’Hara township. WTAE. https://www.wtae.com/article/police-teens-behind-prank-of-attempted-child-luring-in-ohara-township/45516814

Have you ever been running down an empty stretch of highway in your 1998 Toyota Tercel, enjoying the wind in your face (because the window doesn’t roll all the way up anymore), hearing the rumble of the exhaust (because the exhaust manifold is leaking), and finally, turning around to look behind you (because the mirror is hanging on by a thread) to see a police cruiser lighting you up?

Then, when trying to pay the ticket, you realize that speeding in 2023 costs the equivalent of two weeks worth of groceries. You’re left with a choice; pay the ticket, or eat real food until November? Such is the struggle of the working class when fines are levied against them.

Let’s take a look at higher income earners when compared to low earners when charged a $286 fine.

The low earner, at $15 an hour, would require 19.1 hours of labor to pay that fine (before taxes!!!), whereas a professional making $60 an hour would require just 4.8 hours of labor to pay off that fine (Pettit, 2022). This is also ignoring the fact that lower paying jobs also happen to be the ones which are the most tiring and physically taxing.

I believe that it is necessary to have a system similar to the one that already exists in Europe and a lot of Latin American countries, which has a sliding scale of penalties based on your income-level and severity of the offense (Pettit, 2022).

I also believe that nonpayment or failure to appear should have a maximum level of punishment; for example, the government should not have the ability to jail someone for not paying a speeding ticket. Rather, they should use other means, such as wage garnishment, to retrieve fines that are unpaid (but only if they do so in a progressive manner accounting for the person’s income level).

Sources:

Bing, L., Pettit, B., & Slavinski, I. (2022). Incomparable Punishments: How Economic Inequality Contributes to the Disparate Impact of Legal Fines and Fees. The Russell Sage Foundation journal of the social sciences : RSF, 8(2), 118–136. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2022.8.2.06

We will always remember the trials and sentences that have been televised and of high public sensitivity and with a lot of audiences. However, before the trial occurred, there was a police process that investigated. Social psychology has been important in improving the effectiveness of police interview procedures. The investigative interview is fundamental and is responsible for interviewing witnesses, victims, and suspects, which constitutes an important part of a criminal investigation. This process of investigative interviews conducted with suspects has the only objective of obtaining a confession from the suspect. As mentioned by Gurman et al. (2016) “Police in North America are trained to interrogate only people they consider guilty”.

Considering this premise that the police in the United States only interrogate people they consider guilty, it is possible to detect a problem with the police system. Police officers are human beings with implicit biases just like any other citizen. For example, thanks to social psychology we know how interactional synchrony, which is the tendency of people to coordinate their body movements during conversations, can produce a change of behaviors between the interviewer and the interviewee (suspect), we know that this interaction is not 100% reliable, to determine the guilty of someone. On the other hand, using an investigative interview training called the Reid technique, which points out that most of the behavioral signs of deception that police officers are taught and in consequence, they believe liars exhibit are not good indicators, either.

These factors presented above can lead to a suspect making a false confession, that is, admitting to a crime he or she did not commit. This is known as fundamental attribution error, and it usually occurs when the influence of external factors is underestimated when evaluating people’s behavior, therefore this phenomenon does not contribute to the application of justice, since the confession has been produced under the influence of external factors (violence, coercion, among others). To avoid this type of situation, social psychology can be of great help. For example, the participation of police officers in psycho-orientation programs, designed by psychologists, can improve the interview process, reducing the number of suspects who confess to a crime they did not commit, or preventing officer behavior and biases from police officers alter the behavior of the interviewee.

Reference

Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, edited by Jamie A. Gruman, et al., SAGE Publications, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pensu/detail.action?docID=5945490.

When an individual is sent to prison, the goal is to receive proper treatment to stay out of the system once released back into their community. Sadly, that is not typically the case. As of 2023, an estimated 708,000 people are incarcerated, with a national average of 44% recidivism rate within the first three years of release (Voter, 2023). This statistic is one of the highest in the world for recidivism rates.   The definition of a prison is “to protect society by removing a criminal from the streets and to punish the criminal for their anti-social behavior (Coutts et al., 2017, p. 311). Where in this definition is any guidance provided to the criminal to understand why their behaviors are anti-social? It has been proven many times over that our prison systems are not working, yet nothing is being done to come up with a solution. How can we, as a society, expect criminals to be rehabilitated when many prison systems treat the inmates inhumanely and learn further anti-social behaviors behind the prison walls? Punishment is the individual being removed from society and losing their freedom. When released, we continue to punish them and the community they are released back into by not providing them with the appropriate tools to function and contribute to society. We cannot expect them to change without providing them with a change agent.

There has been a large misconception for decades that with harsher punishments, the inmate will be reformed and ready to be released into society. Around the 1970s, there was a focus on prison rehabilitation until this took a backseat to being “tough on crime” (Benson, 2023). Before this shift, inmates were encouraged and supported in developing occupational skills and resolving the psychological struggles that may be holding them back from their full potential. This could be issues such as substance abuse or anger that they never learned to control. Now, prison systems are focused on punishment as their primary means compared to any rehabilitation services to help them. This approach has created an expansive growth in the prison population and has had little to no effect on the crime rates decreasing by “being tough on crime.” This new focus has resulted in more than two million individuals being incarcerated, equivalent to one in every one hundred and forty-two people. This also has increased the number of released prisoners on parole or probation to roughly four to five million people (Benson, 2023).

Therapeutic Communities are a “holistic residential environment designed to promote the personal growth and development of the residents” (Coutts et al., 2017, p. 315).   Maxwell Jones is the person most closely associated with these communities and developed multiple principles that these communities are based on. These Therapeutic communities are aimed at bringing about changes in the prisoner’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that will help them live a healthier, happier, and adaptive lifestyle when they are released and return to their community (Coutts et al., 2017, p. 315). When these programs are brought into correctional facilities, additional tools are added to help rehabilitate the inmate, such as building relationships and victim awareness and helping them develop strategies that will help them not re-offend and be successful. These are programs unlike any other because the role of the community is a primary factor that promotes social and psychological change (Coutts et al., 2017, p. 316). The way the programs are set up now, the inmates are thoroughly screened before being admitted to the program so as not to cause any disruption. However, these programs should be adjusted so that all inmates who will eventually be released back into society can participate and learn new skills for a successful release.

Each year, more than a trillion dollars of the taxpayer’s money, five percent of our gross domestic product, is used towards recidivism (Voter, 2023). Instead of continuing the vicious cycle of releasing prisoners who received no rehabilitation or treatments and setting them up to be re-incarcerated, this money could be used to revamp our prison systems and help the inmates learn different occupational and life skills. All fifty states have struggled with recidivism rates when there is a clear answer that could help with this issue across the board. In 1977, The Stay’n Out program was implemented as a 12-month program for male and female prisoners who struggle with substance abuse problems. The program consisted of three stages: induction, treatment, and consolidation of treatment gains and reentry into the community (Coutts et al., 2017, pp. 316-317). Three years after their release, only 26.9% of this treatment group recidivated, compared to the upwards of 40% of inmates who did not receive any rehabilitation or drug therapy.

The answer is right in front of us about what we can do to help with the recidivism rates and support our inmates in overcoming their struggles and becoming productive and happy members of society. It is not just to punish someone for their crime. More often than not, they are treated inhumanely and do not receive any treatment, simply their punishment for the crime committed. These Therapeutic communities do not take away from the fact that they committed a crime, but it does help them to understand why what they did was wrong and what they need to do to overcome the issues that caused them to commit the crime in the first place. We need to bring humanity into our prison systems instead of just punishing them and expecting them to learn why their actions are not socially acceptable.

Benson, E. (2023, July 1). Rehabilitate of Punish? American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug03/rehab

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications.

(n.d.). Recidivism by State. Wise Voter. https://wisevoter.com/state-rankings/recidivism-rates-by-state/

I always had the impression that for anyone who is not serving a life sentence or awaiting the death penalty, the primary goal of going to prison was to rehabilitate the individual with hopes of returning to society a changed person. I believed that individuals received the life sentence or the death penalty simply because the system did not believe they could be rehabilitated based on the severity of their crime. Is the current prison system we have now sufficiently meeting its goals for those individuals who are expected to return to society, or would a system more characteristic of a therapeutic community better serve said goals and improve the rehabilitation process?

The goals of prison are as follows: remove a criminal from society and punish them for their illegal behavior, deter the rest of society from committing the same or similar crimes, deter the individual from committing the crime, rehabilitate the individual, send a message to all society that such behavior is punished, and serve time as repayment (Gruman et al., 2017). The majority of these goals seem to be fair, though I am unsure whether the current system in place is best serving them. Arguably, our current prison system is more intent on the aspect of fear, punishment, and repayment rather than actual rehabilitation. 

There are some concerns about this, one of which is that the prison environment is not optimized in a way that would support offenders in making the necessary personal changes required to reduce the risk of reoffending (Gruman et al., 2017). If one of the primary goals of the prison system is to remove a criminal from society but the environment itself is not properly designed to positively alter the behavior of said offender, are we not recycling criminals through the system and society? Essentially, one of the primary goals is to keep society safe by removing criminals from the streets (Gruman et al., 2017). When it is time for those criminals to return to society, the system places criminals back onto the street without proper rehabilitation, seemingly negating the original goal. In 2019, the recidivism rate in the United States was 70% within the first five years of being released (Hayden, 2023). This number is significant enough to tell me that the majority of individuals within the prison system are not deterred from committing more crimes after being released. If fear, punishment, and repayment are not enough to keep individuals from reoffending, why not try a more therapeutic and rehabilitative approach?

The current system involves horrific conditions in terms of poor sanitary and hygienic conditions, overcrowding, limited opportunities for healthy behaviors/outlets such as exercise, assaults on other staff members and inmates, hunger strikes, and riots (Gruman et al., 2017). As someone who comes from a fairly cushioned and comfortable environment, it is easy for me to say I would not want to experience prison, though that is not necessarily why I do not commit crimes. I have never felt the need to commit a crime nor been surrounded by crime. For some individuals, crime is all they know. “Prisons are microcosms of the larger coercive and maladaptive environment that inmates often inhabit on the streets” (Gruman et al., 2017). This being considered, of course, prisons are not deterring certain individuals from committing crimes if the prison does not look much different than their actual home life. It could offer more structure than their home life. What if instead of perpetuating the maladaptive environment and behaviors, we instead showed convicts how to live a different and more productive life and end the cycle?

Therapeutic prison communities are holistic residential environments that are designed to change the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors in hopes of the individual returning to the community to live a healthier lifestyle rather than reverting to the lifestyle that led them to be admitted in the first place (Gruman et al., 2017). It is devastating to think that some individuals grow up never knowing or understanding the principles of honesty, openness, self-governance, and respect, though unfortunately, that is the case for many people within the criminal system. While I do not believe this excuses the crimes they commit, I simply believe we can offer them a better chance that they may not have had simply due to the environment they were born into. Therapeutic communities offer opportunities for people who commit crimes to experience a prosocial environment while still maintaining structure and security (Gruman et al., 2017). These individuals are still being removed from society for some time following their crimes, but they are being given the chance to learn a new way of life in hopes that they will not re-offend. Studies show that such communities can reduce the rates of recidivism (Galassi et al., 2015). Therapeutic communities do not thrive on punishment and fear as a deterrent for criminal behavior but rather they give offenders a fighting chance to improve their way of life and end a cycle of maladaptive behaviors. 

Let us give offenders a fighting chance to change their lives. Tax dollars are already being used to uphold the system we have now, which has deep faults and shortcomings. The goals of prison are essentially to deter individuals and society from committing crimes, keep them separate from society, punish the individual, rehabilitate the individual, and take their time as repayment for the crime. Given recidivism rates, it is clear that our current system, despite how harsh and brutal it can be, is not “punishing and deterring” sufficiently enough and the answer is not to respond with worse conditions or consequences. Rehabilitation still involves time served, removing the individual from society, but teaching them how to return to society a better individual than they were before; giving them the tools and opportunity to rewrite their destiny rather than keeping them in the same vicious cycle. I believe that would be a much better use of our resources while still fulfilling the goals of incarceration.

References

Galassi, A., Mpofu, E., & Athanasou, J. (2015). Therapeutic community treatment of an inmate population with substance use disorders: Post-release trends in re-arrest, re-incarceration, and drug misuse relapse. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4483748/#:~:text=Three%2Dquarters%20of%20the%20studies,in%2055%25%20of%20the%20studies.

Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage.

Hayden, M. (2023). Recidivism rates in the United States versus Europe: How and why are they different? Western Michigan University. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4677&context=honors_theses

When someone uses the term criminal many people naturally think of an individual that has committed a heinous crime, such as murder, rape, arson, etc. Yet, there are a lot of crimes that are not so violent that many individuals never consider. Being violent is just one example of a stereotype that surrounds many criminals. Stereotyping is very harmful and can lead to a lot of long-term issues in communities and the justice system. There are a lot of factors that are involved in this as well such as the police, the media, the court system, etc.

Biases and stereotypes are heavily influenced by certain factors such as race, ethnicity, religion, social class, and environment. Many mistakes have been made in the judicial system due to these perceptions. An article from the American Psychology Association details the wrongful arrest of a man in 2004 by the name of Brandon Mayfield. He was arrested in the case of the Madrid Commuter Train Bombings by the FBI due to partial fingerprint evidence. His arrest came shortly after he converted to Islam, married an Egyptian immigrant, and represented a convicted terrorist in court. All of these factors led to the stereotype that Mr. Mayfield could also be a terrorist. This is just one example of how the criminal justice system failed an innocent individual due to stereotyping. Mayfield’s religion, marital status, and previous work history convinced the FBI that he committed a violent terrorist attack when in fact he did not. This type of misconduct occurs way to often amongst people of certain races and religions.

This conversation topic began to intrigue me for this post due to the readings about Andrews and Bonta’s general personality and social psychological model of criminal behavior. This model lists 8 risk factors that can potentially predict the criminal behaviors of individuals. While this model seems like it could categorize a lot of criminals there are some issues with it that could lead to stereotyping. For example, one of the risk factors in this model is “low levels of school or vocational achievement”. Now, someone who does not do well academically is not doomed to having a future of criminal activity. Sometimes, children that do not perform well in school excel in other areas such as sports, drama, arts, etc. This “risk factor” can be very misleading as well as a few others. “Abuse of drugs and/or alcohol” is another risk factor on this list, and I feel as though this one is also up for debate. A lot of individuals with substance abuse history and/or alcohol abuse history do not commit crimes in their lifetime. This model could potentially provide insight to early struggles that could lead to criminal behavior, but it is not the case for everyone.

To conclude, stereotyping provides a lot of issues for the criminal justice system and can lead to many wrongful arrests and convictions. It is very important to have law enforcement officials that treat everyone equally and hold no personal beliefs or biases in terms of their work.

References:

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). The perfect match: Criminal stereotypes bias forensic fingerprint analysis. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/pubs/highlights/spotlight/issue-82

“It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer.”

These words were written by the English jurist William Blackstone back in 1790. In the centuries since, his words have often been repeated, but their meaning seems to have been lost on those who uphold the criminal justice system. This is evidenced by the shocking number of false confessions used by the police and prosecutors to convict innocent people of crimes in America.

In 1992, a young man named Juan Rivera was interrogated for four straight days by detectives in Lake County, Illinois. After they were done with him, he had confessed twice to the brutal rape and murder of an eleven-year-old girl. The first time he confessed, the statement was so factually inconsistent that the police forced him to make a second to clear up the story (Gross & Possley, 2016). A year later, he was convicted of the crime. After spending thirteen years in prison, DNA evidence proved that it was someone else who raped and murdered the young girl.

Even with the exculpatory DNA evidence, prosecutors re-tried Rivera and secured another conviction for the same crime. This is due to his false confession. Thankfully, in 2011, his conviction was vacated and the charged were dropped after the Illinois Supreme Court found his conviction to be “unjustified and cannot stand” (Gross & Possley, 2016).

It;s difficult to understand why an innocent person would ever confess to a crime they didn’t commit, but that’s usually because they don’t understand how police interrogations are performed. According to research, most police jurisdictions use the Reid technique when conducting interviews (Day & Marion, 2017). This technique includes “repeated accusations and statements of the certainty of the suspect’s guilt; not letting the suspect speak and repeatedly shutting down his or her denials; telling the suspect that there is irrefutable evidence against him or her (even if that evidence does not exist); minimization and justifications for the commission of the crime; and providing the suspect with a theme describing why and how he committed the crime.” (Day & Marion, 2017).

Police departments who use the Reid technique believe that they can use non-verbal behavior to discern whether someone is telling the truth or being deceptive (Orlando, 2019). This belief, however, is not founded in social psychology. Studies have repeatedly shown that the behavioral cues police use to determine truth or deceit are not accurate indicators of truthfulness (Day & Marion, 2017). Often, the combative and aggressive nature of the Reid technique will elicit a false confession instead of the truth.

To help curb the prevalence of these false confessions, it’s time to retire the Reid technique and ban it from being used in police interviews. To replace it, police need to be trained in the PEACE method deployed by police in Britain. The PEACE method allows interviewees to tell their story without interruption and without deceit from the interviewer (Orlando, 2019). Instead, they follow the five steps of PEACE:

1) Preparation and planning. Interviewers are trained to complete a detailed interview plan. This plan should include the amount of time the interviewee has been in custody, the topics to be covered, and the points necessary to either prove the interviewee’s innocence or guilt (Orlando, 2019).

2). Engage and explain. The interviewer is trained to use active listening so that they may engage with the interviewee (Orlando, 2019). The interviewers should explain the reasons for the interview and its objectives (Gavin, 2017).

3) Account. The interviewer should use active listening to get the full story from the interviewee’s point of view (Gavin, 2017). Any questions that the interviewee asks should be direct and free from confusing cop jargon, and they should avoid any leading questions if they can.

4) Closure. The end of the interview should be planned to avoid any abrupt changes (Orlando, 2019). At the end of the interview, the detective or police officer should accurately summarize the interviewee’s version of the event, and they should allow the interviewee to make any corrections to the story (Gavin, 2017).

5) Evaulate. This final step is three-fold. The interviewer should conclude the interview and evaluate how the interviewer’s story fit with the facts, whether any further action is needed, and their own performance in the interview (Gavin, 2017).

By using the PEACE method instead of the Reid technique, our criminal justice system can once again reflect the motto that each person is innocent until proven guilty. The non-combative and non-deceptive PEACE method will also help to avoid the types of false confessions that landed Juan Rivera in prison. Until a shift from the Reid technique is done across the board, then the American justice system is declaring that it is, in fact, better that ten innocents suffer than one guilty person go free.

References:

Day, D. M., & Marion, S. B. (2017). Applying social psychology to the Criminal Justice System. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, 287–320. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591.n11

Gavin, D. C. (2020). Coming to PEACE with Police Interrogations: Abandoning the Reid Technique and Adopting the PEACE Method. Loyola Journal of Public Interest Law, 22(1), https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A677091177/AONE?u=cens39029&sid=googleScholar&xid=259008fa

Gross, S., & Possley, M. (2016). For 50 years, you’ve had “The right to remain silent.” The National Registry of Exonerations. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Pages/False-Confessions-.aspx

Orlando, J. (2019). Interrogation techniques. https://www.cga.ct.gov/2014/rpt/2014-R-0071.htm

When a loved one goes to prison, it feels as though you yourself are in prison as well.  I have experienced a loved one, behind bars and I can honestly say it has been one of the most challenging times of my life.  Those who believe that the prison system is fair are highly mistaken.  No one realizes the struggles a loved one faces on the outside.  Now, I can honestly say that those who are in prison for higher crimes, I have sympathy for.  But in my case my loved one was behind bars for breaking a “rule”, not a law but a “rule”.  Which caused our family to suffer for three years.  One year of anticipation as to what was going to happen and two years of suffering with both of us being punished.  So, going to prison, a person loses everything, their job, family, time, sanity, and most of all their freedom.  As for the loved on the outside, they are loose just the same.  I went from having a home with our family, going to work on a daily basis and coming home to a family dinner, family time and laying down at night with no cares in the world.  To not knowing when I was going to speak to my loved one, unsure if I would be able to see them and having a family torn apart.  Of course, a lot of people say that is the price you pay for the crime that was committed.  But unfortunately, in our case it was blown out of proportion.  Though many can argue.  Regardless, being behind bars even from the outside, I learned that the prison or justice system is unfair.  They claim that when someone goes to prison, they talk it up that they should receive the upmost support from family and social workers, rehabilitation, etc.  Well, being on the outside, I there were days where I was unable to communicate with my loved one, always waiting for a phone call that might or might not happen, hearing “you have 60 seconds left” at the end of a phone call.  My loved one being a far distance from home, causing me to drive 3 and a ½ hours one way for a two-hour visit.  But showing up and still having a 50/50 chance of receiving a visit or not.  They claim that the prisoners need support, that the justice system will be there, will allow family to be supportive.  Yet they make it difficult for that to happen.  I feel that if I could change the way the justice system worked, I would change the support aspect of it.  Starting with family.  Now, not every family is supportive, goes on visits, sends letters, money or receives phone calls.  But for those who do, I would make it easier.  I can honestly say that the two years my loved one was in prison I spent well over 15 thousand dollars in support, not including gas and time to drive for visits weekly.  I was one of the supportive family members, because I knew that my loved one needed it.  I knew that going into the stages of having an incarcerated loved one meant giving them support and mainly mental health support.  Simple things such as a 10-minute phone call, sending them, “letters or care packages to let them know you are thinking of them” (Admin, 2022), and showing up for visitation can help with their mental health.  Mental health is best for those inside and outside of prison, even on the outside, encouraging therapy and ways to cope with the situation are encouraged.  None of it is easy and the justice system does not make it easy.  However, it is possible to cope, and it is possible to survive.  I survived 2 years on the outside with my loved one on the inside.  It was not easy, it was two years full of stress, worries, tears, and anger but coping and having support on both sides is what helps get you both through.  Mental health is no joke, and I do not feel that the justice system takes it as seriously as they proclaim, therefore I believe that in or out, be there.  Do what you can and be persistent.  You can change the mindset of yourself and a loved one, you can make it easier, and you can get through it.  If only there was a way to change the justice system, and maybe overtime it will.  But be there and be sain because on either side, you are behind the bars.

Reference

Admin. (2022, September 15). 10 Tips for Helping a Loved One in Jail. The yale wave. https://campuspress.yale.edu/wave/10-tips-for-helping-a-loved-one-in-jail/#:~:text=You%20can%20also%20send%20them,help%20if%20they%20need%20it.

After reading the lesson on the justice system in my applied social psychology class, I began to wonder why there are so many innocent people in prison. What factors took place to result in innocent people being convicted for crimes they did not commit? This is a larger problem than people like to think, statistics show that “1/20 criminal cases result in a wrongful conviction.” according to The Georgia Innocence Project. I found a few answers as to why after reading the textbook “Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems” and the article, “Why Do Wrongful Convictions Happen?” Some factors that contribute to wrongful convictions are eyewitness misidentification, false confessions, and police and prosecutorial misconduct.

Eyewitness misidentification is one of the leading factors of wrongful convictions. This happens when someone claims to have witnessed the suspect committing the crime in question and identifies the wrong person to be the criminal. In the textbook it reads, “In 2016, The Innocence Project, an organization working toward freeing the wrongfully convicted, reported that mistaken eyewitness identification was a contributing cause in 72% of the 325 criminal cases in which a convicted person was subsequently exonerated through DNA testing” (Innocence Project, 2016). This evidence alone in some cases is enough to have someone convicted for a crime to a sentence they do not deserve, simply because a person is unknowingly mistaken by their failed memory. 

False confessions are another factor in wrongful convictions. According to the University of Colorado Law School, “False confessions have been a factor in 12% of proven wrongful convictions nationwide.” A false confession usually occurs during the interrogation process a suspect undergoes after a crime has been committed. Interrogations are so intense they can go for hours at a time and the police or interviewer who is questioning the suspect can lie to them about having solid evidence proving they are the person who committed the crime. This process is extremely coercive and results in the suspect giving a false confession. This is incredibly damaging to their case for more reasons than one, “In addition to the influence that confession evidence has on police officers and courtroom decision-makers, the damaging effect of a false confession is compounded by the corruptive effect it can have on other pieces of evidence.” (Gruman, 2016). This one factor dilutes any other factors that can be helpful to the suspect because they admitted to the crime. After knowing the suspect said they did it, it is usual for the judge and jury to have a fixed perspective that the suspect is guilty.

Lasty, I wanted to mention the factor of police and prosecutorial misconduct playing a part in wrongful convictions. It has been found that, “Official misconduct by police officers, prosecutors, or other government officials has been present in 54% of wrongful convictions across the nation.” Police and prosecutorial misconduct can occur during investigation and/or during trial. Police can “deliberately use suggestion in an identification procedure, coerce a witness to implicate a suspect, fabricate physical evidence, or use improper interrogation techniques to secure a confession.” and prosecutors can “corrupt the process when they conceal exculpatory evidence (i.e., evidence favorable to the defendant) or when they introduce false or perjured testimony.” (University of Colorado Law School). These people in power can lie in a case so a suspect can appear guilty and convict someone of a crime they did not commit. 

These are only three factors of wrongful misconduct among many more. This is a great injustice in our judicial system resulting in so many people being innocent and incarcerated. Thankfully there are organizations like The Georgia Innocence Project and The Korey Wise Innocence Project that are active in proving undeserving prisoners are not guilty, leading them to be exonerated. Organizations like this are to combat and undo this injustice, however, there needs to be adjustments made in our judicial system in order to prevent people being convicted with the errors of eyewitness misidentification, false confessions, and police and prosecutorial misconduct. 

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. 

The University of Colorado Law School. (n.d.). Why Do Wrongful Convictions Happen? Korey Wise Innocence Project. https://doi.org/https://www.colorado.edu/outreach/korey-wise-innocence-project/our-work/why-do-wrongful-convictions-happen#:~:text=Eyewitness%20misidentification%20is%20one%20of,is%20highly%20imperfect%20and%20fragile. 

Georgia Innocence Project. (2023). Beneath the Statistics: The Structural and Systemic Causes of Our Wrongful Conviction Problem. https://doi.org/https://www.georgiainnocenceproject.org/general/beneath-the-statistics-the-structural-and-systemic-causes-of-our-wrongful-conviction-problem/#:~:text=Studies%20estimate%20that%20between%204,result%20in%20a%20wrongful%20conviction.

On March 13, 1964, a 28 year old woman was stabbed to death in Queens, NY. This woman’s name was Kitty Genovese, and her story inspired psychologists Bibb Latane and John Darley to coin the “bystander effect”. As Kitty was being assaulted, there were 38 bystanders that either heard or watched this brutal attack, but none of them intervened. Why didn’t anyone help this woman? The bystander effect hoped to explain this strange phenomenon.

So what is the bystander effect? The bystander effect states that “people are less likely to help in an emergency when other bystanders are present” (Gruman et al, 2017). But why does this happen? One theory as to why this occurs is that there is interdependence between groups of people. This means that when many people are in the presence of an emergency situation, they might expect someone else to help, which “relieves them of the responsibility to take action themselves” (Sissons, 2023). Take a second and think back to a time where you were seeing or hearing an emergency, did you take action?

The most well known case related to the bystander effect is Kitty Genovese, but there are many other cases that show us this effect. One of these cases occurred on October 24, 2009. On this date at Richmond high school, a 15 year old girl was raped and beaten by 10 men. About ten other individuals were watching this assault, not helping, but instead taking pictures and videos. The principal also saw a large group of men without identification, but did not step in to check. The girl lived, but went through this horrible ordeal. It is extremely important to find ways to stop this effect and to help others in times of need.

This information seems discouraging to most people. You may think, if I was ever the victim of an emergency, would anyone help me? Luckily, there are ways to overcome this bystander effect. Number one on this list is to be observant. If you don’t see what is happening, you may feel that you are too late to intervene. In a 1968 experiment, participants were less likely to respond to smoke filling up the room when others also did not respond. By being aware and observant, we can help when needed, rather than being too late. Another way to overcome this effect is to be skilled and knowledgeable. When people do not believe they have the skills to help in an emergency, they won’t intervene. By having certain skills, we believe in our ability to help and will likely intervene. Lastly, we can see others as deserving help. Someone who doesn’t respect the homeless probably won’t give money out or help them when they are in need, but one that does would help if that person was hurt or needed help. The take home message from this article is to help others in need.

Resources:

Cherry, K. (n.d.). How to Overcome the Bystander Effect. Very Well Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-overcome-the-bystander-effect-2795559

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W. & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks; CA: Sage Publications.

Ruhl, C. (2023, August 3). What Happened to Kitty Genovese. Simple Psychology. https://www.simplepsychology.org/kitty-genovese.html

Sissons, B. (2023, September 1). What to know about the bystander effect. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/bystander-effect

By definition, a prison is “to protect society by removing a criminal from the streets and to punish the criminal for their antisocial behavior” (Gruman et al., 2017, p.311). Some other goals are general and specific deterrence, rehabilitation, denunciation, and retribution (Gruman et al., 2017). From this perspective, prison as an institution is meant to be an unbiased system that serves justice and protects the public. However, the United States has private prisons. These prisons have become a controversial and complex issue, raising questions about the ethics and effectiveness of the profit-driven incarceration system. While some argue that they can lead to cost savings and increased efficiency, others state that they create perverse incentives, potentially compromising the rehabilitation of inmates and raising concerns about human rights violations.

A significant point of concern is that private prisons have profit-driven motives. It is argued that when corporations are financially incentivized to keep prisons at or near capacity, it can lead to a focus on profit rather than inmate rehabilitation. According to Weybright (2020) from Washington Univeristy “private prisons lead to an average increase of 178 new prisoners per million population a year” (pp. 3). Looking at these numbers, it is no wonder corporations are eager to keep their hands in the criminal justice system as high incarceration rates keep their pockets full. This has the potential to create a vicious cycle where inmates are trapped in a system designed to maximize profits, rather than promote their reintegration into society. Weybright (2020) explains private prisons lead to an increase in the length of sentences, specifically for nonviolent crimes. Such concerns raise questions about the moral implications of making money from incarceration. 

One argument in favor of private prisons is the potential for cost savings. From this perspective, individuals argue privatization can reduce the financial burden on taxpayers by introducing competition and cost-effective management. In Weybright’s (2020) article, he dives into the cost of maintaining a prison per year; a prisoner costs the state $60, which adds up to $1.9 to 10.6 million a year. By moving this cost to corporations, the state frees itself of the financial responsibility and puts the money elsewhere. Private companies are motivated to cut expenses, which can lead to more efficient prison operations. However, to counter this argument, cost-cutting measures may negatively impact the quality of services, staff training, and rehabilitation programs like therapeutic communities that focus on the personal growth and development of inmates (Gruman et al., 2017). With a lack of these services, there is the risk of driving recidivism rates up.

In conclusion, the issue of private prisons in America is multifaceted, with both proponents and critics making compelling arguments. While cost savings are an appealing aspect of privatization, concerns about perverse incentives and inmate rehabilitation. Addressing these concerns and striking the right balance between financial responsibility and ethical treatment of inmates remains an ongoing challenge for policymakers and the criminal justice system in the United States.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Weybright, S. (2020, September 15). Privatized prisons lead to more inmates, longer sentences, study finds. WSU Insider. https://news.wsu.edu/press-release/2020/09/15/privatized-prisons-lead-inmates-longer-sentences-study-finds/

The criminal justice system and psychology is one of my favorite topics. It really allows you to understand why people do what they do, the risk factors, and how we can combat crime.  As well as the most effective ways to rehabilitate inmates and orchestrate prisons in the most beneficial way. So much research has been done to understand these things and determine what works best-yet here we are. Why is it so hard to put these findings into action? Why must it take so much time and be such a struggle to make changes that are clearly beneficial? I suppose cost is usually a factor, people don’t want to spend the money on prisons and inmates. However, I think the benefits outweigh the costs, literally.

A lot of people don’t have accurate information when it comes to punishment and what works and what doesn’t. It makes sense that people would believe that harsh punishment, such as the death penalty would reduce crime, however that is not the case. Most people feel that deterrence, or the consequence of the crime, is enough to deter people from criminal behavior.  According to the Death Penalty Information Center, capital punishment is not a good deterrent because criminals are not in the mindset to weigh the potential consequences of a crime in the heat of the moment. (Death Penalty Information Center, 2007) While committing a crime, criminals rarely take the time to sit and decide if the consequence is worth the crime, furthermore, only a small percent of people who commit crimes, even murders, get the death penalty, meaning it is not a sure thing. Studies suggest that in order for punishment to be effective, it must be swift and certain. For example, if I know that stealing a TV from Walmart immediately results in me being incarcerated for 1 year, I might be dissuaded from the crime. However, that is not the case, it could take weeks or months to determine my fate, and the consequences are determined by many other factors. I might not get any jail time, perhaps a fine, community service or probation, all of which are probably a slap on the wrist, and none of the consequences are swift or certain. If my punishment for something comes weeks, months, years later, is it really a punishment for the crime? Would I really correlate my actions and consequences? There’s too much time between the crime and actual punishment, and there’s too much uncertainty in the consequence for the punishment to serve its purpose or act as a deterrent.

I feel there is a huge discord when it comes to effective rehabilitation within the prison system, and people feeling like we are doing too much for criminals? If most of these criminals are going to be released back into society, wouldn’t people want them to be rehabilitated and less likely to re-offend?  To me, that’s well worth the time, money, and effort. I feel people who commit crimes can still learn their lesson in prison, while also being granted the opportunity to better themselves and return to society better off than when they left. As our book suggests, the prison environment is not conducive to the needs of the inmate to make positive changes to reduce recidivism. (Gruman, et al., 2017)

The prison systems need revamping and research supports these changes. I feel therapeutic communities are more beneficial in terms of the inmates and where it leaves the state of the community as inmates integrate back into society. There is a main focus on living learning within the therapeutic community, which follows the principles of honesty, openness, and the role in the community. (Gruman, et al., 2017) The focus on the role in the community sets this approach apart from others, but I feel it is one of the most important because it helps give the inmates a sense of belonging, which I feel sometimes can be hard as most don’t know where they fit in, especially upon release.

I really do hope to see a change in the prison system in my lifetime. So much research has been done, but it feels like it takes so long for real changes to ever be implemented. I hope that the prison system can begin to make changes that are beneficial to all, because I really do feel like the rehabilitation of inmates IS a benefit to all involved. For the individual, their families, and the community. As well as revisions to the way we punish so that it is actually effective in reducing crime.

References

Experts Explain why the Death Penalty Does Not Deter Murder. (2007) Death Penalty Information Center.

https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/policy-issues/deterrence

Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591

Cohesion In team sports, the mind thinks of a “like a family “mindset; there is also the thought of emotional bonds within the team; a strong sense of belonging and support is crucial to get the group’s satisfaction and perform to their best (Gruman et al., 2016).

Team building is one way to shape cohesion. Having a most valuable player in a team won’t make the best team. Each player’s role can be enhanced through team building, creating a unified lineup of athletes (Eys & Kim, 2017). For example, doing drills in pairs or as a group working as one team. Here, Team players have a sense of communication, where they can be clear about each member’s responsibilities and roles; understanding of their position; they don’t get confused about what to do and can do their tasks efficiently; goal-oriented; have a sense of what they would want to achieve and identity; as mention in the first paragraph the sense of unity and belonging (Edger, 2010). Team sports can see this and apply it to work or school settings.
You’d be thinking perhaps it would be good to be teamed with a person familiar with the team; therefore, choosing this individual due to their experience.

What can be said about individual sports athletes? In individual sports, you think of them as being alone as an athlete. In my adolescent days, I was a fencer that played individually in competitions. As an athlete, I learned how to gain a lot of self-reliance; I depend a lot on myself. In one case, I had a ranking competition, and I was alone. I had practiced numerous times and had a good mentality when I lost and won some. I secured a good ranking, and I felt great about it. I see my success relies on my skills and training. Though I admit it was still almost like a team, as in my training sessions, I wasn’t alone. I created a social support group with the people training together; making me get a glimpse of team building. Example when I was training with the group, I was partnered up with different people and had a connection. Though when it was time for me to compete I get into the zone and duel. I used my own set of skills to the best of my ability.

With which person would you prefer to be teammates with? Think about it for a moment. With that in mind, did you know that the players’ interactions in individual and team sports significantly impact team cohesiveness? They both can be at the same level when discussing transformational leadership. A type of leadership known as transformational leadership focuses on encouraging and teaching the team members to achieve their best selves (Oh & Yoo, 2023). In my experience, my coach was a rock; he gave me advice and was there for me when competing and having my training sessions. He even gave me a chance to get experience in team building, and I can see the benefits of teams. However, I feel that even as an individual athlete, I was able to have cohesiveness from the transformational leadership my coach gave me.

Cohesion is essential in team sports but also prevalent in individual sports. Knowing this, who would you pick?

Resources:

• Edger, M. (2010). Building Team Cohesion for Success | Sports Psychology Today – Sports Psychology. Sports Psychology Today – Sports Psychology | Provided by Mental Edge Athletics. http://www.sportpsychologytoday.com/youth-sports-psychology/building-team-cohesion-for-success/
• Eys, M. A., & Kim, J. (2017). Team Building and Group Cohesion in the Context of Sport and Performance Psychology. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.186
• Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US).
• P, Piepiora. (2021). Personality profile of individual sports champions. Brain and Behavior, 11(6). https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2145

The exercise of power has a significant impact on an individual’s life, having an effect not just on the person’s behavior but also on their thoughts, values, and convictions on the inside. The Metamorphic Model of Power, which was suggested by Kipnis, Castell, Gergen, and Mauch, sheds light on the ways in which holding power may fundamentally alter a person’s personality. It is essential to acknowledge that these shifts may not always be headed in the desired direction. The most fundamental consequence of power is that it has a tendency to enhance the holders’ sense of their own self-esteem and self-worth. Those who are in positions of control may tend to feel that they are deserving of their power and that they are intrinsically superior to their peers or subordinates. This is a dangerous way of thinking since it may lead to disastrous consequences. This change in self-perception may present itself as a feeling of hubris or self-importance, which occurs when those in positions of power perceive themselves as being worthy of their higher status. Assuming that their viewpoint is the only one that should be considered, they could engage in actions such as being indifferent or dismissive of the contributions of others. In essence, being in a position of authority may cause people to internalize their dominance, which can result in a distorted perception of one’s self.

On the other hand, the Metamorphic Model of Power posits that individuals who possess power eventually develop a tendency to devalue those who do not wield power. This viewpoint, which is based on the basic attribution fallacy, entails assigning personal characteristics for conduct while minimizing the importance that situational variables play in influencing behavior. As a consequence of this, those who occupy positions of authority may see the people who report to them or work alongside them as fundamentally subpar, inept, or undeserving of their attention. This kind of undervaluing of other people might have a negative impact on the dynamics of the workplace. It has the potential to bring about diminished collaboration, poorer employee morale, and a toxic work atmosphere characterized by a lack of mutual respect and cooperation among employees.

The effects of these power-induced shifts in attitude and conduct may have substantial repercussions in the context of organizational settings. Powerholders who believe they are infallible are more likely to make choices without taking the viewpoints or expertise of others into consideration, which may be detrimental to the efficiency of the organization as a whole. This authoritarian approach has the potential to impede creativity and innovation while also reducing staff engagement levels. In the worst circumstances, it may foster an atmosphere of dread in the workplace, making people reluctant to speak their minds or question established norms.

The Five Bases of Power, developed by French and Raven, provides more insights into the ways in which power may influence a person’s life. These bases of authority are referred to as legitimate power, expert power, referent power, reward power, and coercive power. It is important to note that persons in positions of power often control many bases at the same time. For instance, a manager may possess legal authority based on their formal position within the firm, which permits them to reward or punish personnel (reward and coercive power). This power enables them to have control over the organization. In addition to this, since they are familiar with the procedures and workings of the organization, it is possible that they have expert authority. The fact that they have several power bases may let them exert more influence on others around them. However, this also raises the possibility that power may be abused if it is not used in a prudent manner. Manipulation that is either coercive or dependent on rewards may result in animosity among subordinates, which in turn lowers the quality of relationships that exist inside the company.

In addition, McClelland’s idea of the desire for power provides another dimension to our knowledge of how power influences the lives of a person. According to his thesis, individuals in the workplace have three primary needs: the need for accomplishment, the need for affiliation, and the need for power. The yearning for accomplishment is closely related to the aspiration to triumph over obstacles and complete responsibilities on one’s own. People who have a strong drive to succeed often go for jobs in which they have some degree of influence over the results, such as researchers who must depend on their own efforts to be successful. People who have a desire for affiliation are predisposed to be well at positions that need them to mediate conflicts or communicate effectively with others since this need is centered on the formation and maintenance of connections.

McClelland’s concept of the desire for power is especially pertinent to conversations concerning the effects of power. People who have a high demand for power are often motivated by a strong desire to exert their authority over others. However, the manifestation of this urge may take a variety of forms. Personalized power is defined by the desire to achieve power for one’s personal advantage, frequently at the cost of others within the organization. This kind of power may be detrimental to the company as a whole. This kind of dominance may result in ruthless competition and a disdain for the well-being of coworkers, which is contrary to what Robert Sutton famously referred to as the “no jerk rule.” On the other hand, socialized power refers to the acquisition of power for the purpose of furthering the interests of a group as a whole. It often leads to healthy interactions among group members and encourages the continued success of the organization over the long run. This sort of power is consistent with good leadership, in which leaders put the health and happiness of their teams and the company as a whole ahead of their own personal interests.

Power is, at its core, a multidimensional force that exerts a complicated level of influence on the lives of an individual. It has the capacity to boost one’s self-esteem and self-perception, while at the same time encouraging one to see others in a less favorable light. The repercussions of power are not confined to the mind of a person but rather extend to their behaviors and the ways in which they connect with other people. It is possible to get significant insights into the dynamics of power in organizational settings by gaining an understanding of the many sources of power as well as the demand for power. It highlights the necessity of utilizing power cautiously and responsibly in order to create a pleasant and productive work environment, rather than one that is defined by arrogance, manipulation, or contempt for others. This is because such an atmosphere is less likely to foster healthy and productive work relationships.

Reference:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. 

In this week’s lesson we learned quite a bit about groups, teams, etc, and how they work and what could make them better or worse. One topic interested me in particular and that was about groupthink. What is groupthink? Groupthink can be defined as “a process of flawed decision making that occurs as a result of strong pressures among group members to reach agreement” ( Gruman et al., 2016). Now, already in the definition it sets it up as a negative connotation as the definition has the word “flawed” in it. I can agree that this sort of process is not a good way to go about things in a group or even a great way to think overall, but I still wanted to do some digging of my own to see if there were any kind of positives that could be found.

Ultimately, I did not find many pros to this process, which I had anticipated , and the pros that I did find did not outweigh the negatives. I will still share them anyway however. One pro that I have found on multiple sources is that ultimately there is consensus and alignment. Although even though there is alignment and consensus coming from the group, it does not mean that it came because everyone actually agreed it can come from fear. Groupthink assumes the best, sees big risks as an opportunity, there is quicker decision-making, and it can reduce anxiety (LaVine, 2023). Now, myself, and I am sure others can come back with a rebuttal on how these pros are not actually pros. For example, who is it reducing anxiety for? The ones who are taking charge, or the ones who are too nervous to speak up? Although it takes the anxiety away in the moment, I know if I did not speak my mind during something such as a group project, the whole time I would be thinking about how I wish I would have said something, or how much I actually don’t like what we are doing. Lastly, some cons of groupthink are that there is failure to listen to those who have a differing in opinion, there is lack of creativity, inability to see other solutions, overconfidence, ignoring important information, etc (Cherry, 2022). The list of the cons goes on for a lot longer than the pros. Although I was already skeptical about finding pros for groupthink, even my small research can help highlight that there is more bad than good when it comes to groupthink.

References:

Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, edited by Jamie A. Gruman, et al., SAGE Publications, Incorporated, 2016. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pensu/detail.action?docID=5945490. 

Group work? Ideas? Working with others? These are all the things we have to deal with when working with companies. We must get familiar with new people, their workstyle, and being capable of listening to others’ ideas.  When it comes to hearing others ideas, I love being engaged and having an open mind because they may think of something great that I could’ve never came up with. I never relalized how much psychology influences things such as work and organizations. Social perception is key when it comes to studying new people, we meet these ques determine how we interact or may believe what others are thinking. 

My senior year I worked for a business owner that had her own clothing company. Oh, it was so much fun but some of the workers didn’t do so well when it came to getting adjusted to getting to know the new team. Our manager gave us a project in which we had to promote her headband which this is where the disagreement came along. When we got on a video call one of my coworkers explained how she believed a great scenery to promote the item should be in a park on the grass and I see how on one of the girl’s faces looked like she dislikes the idea and then stated how we should model the headband instead. They began going back and forth saying their ideas were better and failed to come up with an agreement. I used social perception to realize my coworker dislike due to her facial expression. 

This situation relates so much to psychology to me and especially to the Tuckman (1965) model. This reminded me of storming due to the conflicts and disagreement. This happens due to the team members sharing ideas and their opinions. When different viewpoints clash during this stage it leads to tension and struggle when it comes to working as a team. The situation I explained previously related to that and shows how one of the four stages of development can also be related when it comes to businesses or even organizations. Groups and teams always go through issues in the beginning especially when they are unfamiliar with one another. Getting to know people comes with hardships at times and difficulty setting your pride or opinion aside. 

Overall working in groups comes with it flaws, especially disagreements with other group members. There is always instances when someone doesn’t agree with someone else. Being united is key in order for things to function and workout so in my group there was no cohesion everyone wanted to focus on their idea instead of trying out an idea that would make everyone in the group happy. Disagreements happened and it caused us to be delayed with getting our project done and even showcasing it. With team effotts wse would have got our project done and if we went through all the stages of the  Tuckman (1965) model my team would’ve done well at group work. 

References 

Coutts, L.M., Gruman, J.A. and Schneider, F.W. (2016) Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications. 

In the discussion, I talked about a team I was a part of that followed Tuckerman’s stages. Now, I will talk about a team that seemed not to have any structure whatsoever, and it nearly collapsed before it achieved anything.

I was sent to Oregon Ballistics Laboratory, which is one of three NIJ Certified ballistics testing facilities in the US, to have a new type of body and vehicle armor material tested. We were fully expecting it to pass. The test director put the plate through their course, which includes two drops from a height of 1 meter, a submersion test in water for 30 minutes, three test shots against just backdrop to bring the table-mounted gun’s muzzle up to temp, and then two 30 06 armor piercing rounds hitting two spots within two inches of each other on the plate.

The first shot cut through our armor like butter.

I was immediately assigned to a team that was basically thrown together to “figure this out”. In any team, there is a very important concept called cohesion. This is the dynamic process by which the group tries to stick together and operate as a unit in trying to solve the problem or complete the project they are assigned to (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 132). My team was not cohesive whatsoever. Each person went their own way trying to figure out what went wrong. One person went with one theory, another person went with something totally different. We disagreed, and the only cohesive about the team was the mutual decision that each of us would go down our own rabbit hole and figure it out for ourselves.

Eventually, it turned out my theory was correct. The submersion test is where things went wrong. In an effort to save costs, the R&D director downgraded the sample’s cloth surround to one that wasn’t water resistant, which caused the material to delaminate just enough during submersion that the bullet shredded the adhesives holding the hardened materials together.

I found the answer not through my own super genuis, but rather by sheer luck, and without a team effort. I suspect the answer would’ve come much quicker and with less wasted resources (upwards of $100,000 of billable time by consultants, additional testing, and man hours) if our team had cohesion and at least created a list of potential causes and solutions to explore together before totally fracturing.

Sources:

Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591

Groupthink is described as a process in which flawed decision making occurs as a result of appeasing and avoiding conflict with other group members. (Coutts et al., 2016)  This is so apt because, as far as I can remember I have seen the pitfalls of groupthink in almost every group I` have been part off, even if it is just a social group there is always a member who has the loudest most argumentative voice, and the rest of the group always try to appease them, by agreeing to their suggestion, and agreeing to do things that they want, just to keep peace. I do wonder though, because majority of my group experiences have been through voluntary organizations, and it makes me wonder maybe in proper organization where people are paid to participate in group work ,maybe things would be different, and there will be fewer incidents of groupthink? In voluntary  work groups there  are always incidence of Normative influence(Coutts et al., 2016) because everyone is giving up their time and energy to help out for free for the greater good, no one wants to call out the person who is coming up with unrealistic ideas, or not agreeing with anyone or think that they should be given more importance for one reason or another. Although I have heard friends tell me about their work situations, where there is always a colleague creating issues with everyone, and wasting everyone’s time with unreasonable demands, and to avoid conflict, and issues people are always trying to appease that person. Truth is there is always one member in any group which everyone tries to soothe, to keep them happy and in the positive mood, just think of your family there is always one person!!!

Coutts, L.M., Gruman, J.A. and Schneider, F.W. (2016) Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications.

A very old proverb says that “it is like the ego to take and like the spirit to share” and this is a key to successful teamwork, let’s use the concept of a team that makes a group, “two or more people who interact with each other in such a way that each person influences and is influenced by each other” and we know that based on the individuality and subjectivity of people, it is very complex for two people to be identical and that’s where the problem lies (Shaw, 1981). Although the potential of teamwork complements individual talents and leaves aside the individual for the collective, we can also point out that a lot of talent is no guarantee of success.

Another concept about a team is “a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they are mutually accountable” (Katzenbach and Smith, 1993). When we talk about a work team, we always ask ourselves what they are. The threats that do not allow these work teams to be effective, among the most common are toxic leadership or individual ego that, if not controlled from the beginning, ends up fragmenting work teams. Some contemporary examples of trying to minimize these toxic practices within the team are found in the concepts of Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy (2006).

Task roles are those that an individual fulfills when performing the work. Relationship roles are those that an individual fulfills by keeping the team in harmonious connection so that work can get done. A team without norms and work rules does not work, so we can conclude that to improve and perfect work teams, group norms go hand in hand with group roles, but informal rather than formal. While group roles are officially established in documentation such as job descriptions, group norms are unofficially established rules of behavior within the team, along with this concept we also find the group stage developed by Tuckman (1965) who found that almost all groups follow a predictable life. A cycle that goes through four main stages: formation, assault, regulation, and performance.

Many talents are no guarantee of success, which is why it is necessary to find a balance between the two natures of talent and success. Promote a culture of respect. Setting challenges is a task of the leader or leadership of the group, which tips the balance toward success within the workplace. team, considering that talent is the motivational engine towards the success of any team to achieve its objectives, the role of the leader is to provide corrective tools and intelligently manage the potential of talent within a work team, so it is about advanced studies. the art of leadership and management.

 References

Hughes, R.L., Ginnett, R.C., and Curphy, G.J. (2006). Leadership: Improving lessons from experience. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.

Shaw, M. (1981). Group dynamics: The psychology of small group dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Tuckman, B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63 (6). 384–399. doi:10.1037/h0022100

When we look at winning sports teams, or efficient businesses, they all have a few things in common. They have collective efficiency, social and task cohesion, confidence in themselves and their teammates and a common goal (“Us against the World”: How Having a “Common Enemy” Can Create Team Cohesion. | Applied Social Psychology (ASP), n.d.). These different characteristics are fostered by coaches, bosses, teammates, and co-workers. Collective efficacy is defined as “the shared perception of a group of its efficacy to perform a behavior and to organize and execute the actions required to reach certain levels of achievement” (Zumeta et al., 2016). This achievement can be anything at all like winning a game, reaching a deadline.

Both athletes and businesspeople need both positive reinforcement and concrete examples from leadership teammates or co-workers to promote cohesion, efficiency and skill mastery. If you look at any efficient coach or boss, they promote performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, positive talk, empathy, physiological state and imaginal experiences (Head, 2019). Performance accomplishments and vicarious experience refer to showing an individual exactly how to do something so that they feel that they too can master the skill in question (Head, 2019). This leads to a positive rapport between leadership and individuals. Positive talk and empathy are crucial in fostering an individual’s feeling that they can perform a task and are supported by their coaches and peers. Physiological state and imaginal experiences refer to an individual’s ability to control their inner stress levels and imagine themselves being successful in their respective task (Head, 2019). As everyone grows more confident in their abilities, it encourages others to do the same and the group grows, increasing collective efficacy, morale, and confidence. This leads to accomplishing their common goal.

We can see the power of the collective efficacy in a study by Zumeta et al. The researchers had 276 college students perform multiple team-based sports activities and then answer survey questions based on how well they felt they meshed as a team and how they felt about their own individual roles within the team structure (Zumeta et al., 2016). The results showed that individuals who felt like they were part of the team and could identify with other teammates significantly increased overall performance both individually and as a team (Zumeta et al., 2016). This collective efficacy allowed them to achieve their collective goal, regardless of their own individual goals. This is consistent with collective efficacy and Social Cognitive Theory, where people share beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results (Zumeta et al., 2016).

Overall, leaders and co-workers and teammates who foster the tenants of collective efficacy increase performance of all individuals and the team, overcoming even individual beliefs and goals. This mindset can even help to rebuild losing teams or failing businesses which are faltering from lack of cohesion, motivation, or shared goals.

References

Head, R. (2019, October 8). Self-Efficacy and Sports Performance | Sports Psychology Today – Sports Psychology. Www.sportpsychologytoday.com. https://www.sportpsychologytoday.com/youth-sports-psychology/self-efficacy-and-sports-performance/

“Us against the world”: How having a “common enemy” can create team cohesion. | Applied Social Psychology (ASP). (n.d.). Sites.psu.edu. Retrieved October 5, 2023, from https://sites.psu.edu/aspsy/2023/10/04/us-against-the-world-how-having-a-common-enemy-can-create-team-cohesion/

Zumeta, L. N., Oriol, X., Telletxea, S., Amutio, A., & Basabe, N. (2016). Collective Efficacy in Sports and Physical Activities: Perceived Emotional Synchrony and Shared Flow. Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01960

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Incorporating social psychology principles into leadership development programs offers valuable insights into effective leadership styles and the significance of fostering inclusion within organizations. By prioritizing behaviors such as active listening, empathy, and the creation of a welcoming atmosphere for all team members, organizations can train their leaders to be more inclusive. Inclusive leadership, characterized by these attributes, is a catalyst for cultivating diverse and collaborative work environments. ​As mentioned in Applied Social Psychology is states “Moreover, the particular style of the leader (e.g., supportive, directive, participative, achievement oriented) will positively or negatively affect subordinates’ satisfaction, motivation, and (ultimately) performance depending on both the subordinates’ characteristics (e.g., needs, skills) and the work environment (e.g., nature of the task, nature of the work group)(Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2020).”​ Your leadership is a critical part of applying social psychology in an organizational setting.  

​​Social perception, within applied social psychology, centers on comprehending how individuals perceive and interact with one another in real-world contexts (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2020).​ This understanding extends to address a wide array of issues such as prejudice, discrimination, workplace diversity, conflict resolution, health behavior change, environmental conservation, community engagement, consumer behavior, education, criminal justice, and more. For instance, employees’ perceptions of the companies they work for can vary significantly based on their job satisfaction, relationships with colleagues, and management. These perceptions can be either positive or negative, depending on their experiences and perspectives. 

 Perceptual biases in applied social psychology refer to our inherent inclination to interpret social information systematically and often unconsciously. These biases exert a profound influence on decision-making, behavior, and outcomes within real-world scenarios (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2020). Consider, for instance, an employee who consistently arrives early, dresses professionally, and exhibits a friendly demeanor. Their manager may form a positive overall impression based on these observable behaviors, assuming the employee has qualities like competence, diligence, and teamwork. This perception might lead the manager to overlook minor mistakes or shortcomings, driven by the positive halo effect. Addressing these biases is vital to promote fairness, equity, and positive social change, particularly in domains like politics, criminal justice, and workplace dynamics (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2020). 

In conclusion, leadership assumes a pivotal role in the application of social psychology concepts within organizations. By training leaders to embody inclusive behaviors and fostering a sense of belonging, organizations can establish diverse and collaborative workplaces. Additionally, leaders’ styles have a profound impact on employee satisfaction, motivation, and performance, contingent upon individual attributes and the specific work environment. Recognizing and mitigating perceptual biases is equally essential, as they can sway decision-making and affect equity in areas such as workplace interactions, criminal justice, and political contexts. Employing principles from social psychology can propel organizations toward greater fairness, equity, and social responsibility. 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

When you are given a scholarship to play a sport in college, you enter your freshman year thinking that you are the most important piece of the puzzle. Your confidence is at an all-time high, and you enter the arena or court for the first time with your chest puffed up and a skip in your step. What happens, then, when you are shown right away that you’re not as good as you thought, that there are grown men who are much more talented than you already on the team, and that you’re being relegated to the Junior Varsity team for your first season?

You are deflated. Beaten. In the span of a few short weeks, you went from thinking you’re going to turn the fates of the program around to being told that you’re not even going to be a part of the program to start off your career. It’s disheartening, discouraging, and it can ruin the careers of some athletes. Now, combine fifteen of these broken players onto one Junior Varsity team. What kind of chemistry could you possibly hope to create when every player is in such a negative headspace? How could an island of misfit toys ever hope to win basketball games?

According to social psychology, a team of throwaway players can win. That is, if they have social and task cohesion, and a common enemy.

Social cohesion refers to the level at which the members of the team are united as a group (Sullivan et al., 2017). Task cohesion, on the other hand, refers to how united the team is toward achieving their shared goals (Smith et al., 2013). In the above example, the social cohesion should be low because each player that was relegated to the Junior Varsity team thought that the deserved to be a part of the “big show”. The task cohesion would be, like any other team, a desire to win games. But, if you don’t care about the team you’re on and only wish to be promoted to the main squad, how much could you possibly care about winning?

It turns out that you end up throwing the cast-offs together, they can bond together over one thing: being a cast-off.

I should know because it happened to me. I was a highly recruited freshman who came into my first year and was sent down to play on the J.V. team. I thought my career was over before it had a chance to begin. Not only that, but I had to play on a team with 14 other guys who all thought the same way I did.

On a “normal” team, the social cohesion can be tipped from one end to the other based on the personalities of the players and how well they fit together (Gruman et al., 2017). When we first got together as a J.V. team, there was almost no social cohesion. We were at each other’s throats daily. None of us believed that we belonged there, so we never pulled the boat in the same direction. We were, all fifteen of us, thinking only of ourselves and who we needed to “beat” to be moved up.

That is, until I had an epiphany. One day, as we were practicing, I could feel that we were failing as a team. We were fighting amongst each other instead of preparing for the opponents we were about to face. There was a level of anger within the team that was almost at the boiling point. So, I had two options. I could sit everyone down and try to talk through our problems and come to a solution as a team, or I could turn the heat up and allow the anger to boil over. I chose to let the anger boil over, but instead of allowing the boil cascade over us and potentially destroy the team, I decided to focus the anger toward a “common” enemy: our program’s head coach.

Studies have shown that social cohesion within a team is increased when they are confronted with an outside threat. This phenomenon is called, simply, the “common enemy effect” (Haller & Hoyer, 2019). One of the most effective ways to drive cohesion within a team is to focus the energies of the individuals onto a common enemy (Savar, 2019).

Once we all were focused on proving the common enemy wrong, we started to fight together as a team. Our practices became more competitive, we worked with one another to improve, and we started to win games. Having something to focus our anger, our frustration, and our disappointment onto helped us to all row the boat in the same direction. Instead of finding ways to step on one another for a chance to be promoted, we banded together and became a cohesive unit with chemistry unlike anything found at the upper level of the program. Being on the J.V. team became a badge of honor for us, a sign that we were unwanted by the common enemy but found a family in the trenches. Even now, fifteen years later, we still meet once a year and remember how special it was to be on that J.V. team.

The next time your team is faced with a seemingly unreachable goal, or the next time you are having a hard time bringing your teammates together, try to find that common enemy. It will focus the energy of the individuals onto one central opposing force, which will drive motivation and team cohesion (Savar, 2019). With cohesion, and motivation, your team can achieve results that you never thought would be possible.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017a). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591

Haller, H., & Hoyer, B. (2019). The common enemy effect under Strategic Network Formation and disruption. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 162, 146–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.03.011

Savar, A. (2019, December 17). Nothing brings a team together like a common enemy. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2019/12/17/nothing-brings-a-team-together-like-a-common-enemy/?sh=566624a96152

Smith, M. J., Arthur, C. A., Hardy, J., Callow, N., & Williams, D. (2013). Transformational leadership and task cohesion in sport: The mediating role of intrateam communication. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 14(2), 249–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.10.002

Sullivan, P., Feltz, D. L., & Dithurbide, L. (2017). Applying social psychology to sports teams. Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems, 129–154. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591.n6

Recreation sporting teams, one of the most critical teams a kid can be a part of at a young age.  The hustle and the bustle of having practice, weekly games winning, losing, tie breakers that all lead to a championship.  Well it’s all fun and games until the team you were counting on in the championship isn’t there.

Alright, let’s start at the beginning. Last Spring my daughter wanted to play soccer so I logged on to try and sign her up and instantly denied due to a ‘full team’, mind you it was a week into registration and registration is open for four weeks.  Come to find out other kids double rostered, meaning soccer, soft ball, baseball, etc.  Which meant they took up multiple spots on each sports team.  After a bit of waiting, we were able to get her on the team. She had a great team, they worked hard all season, had a few kids missing here and there due to a double roster, but still managed to be one of the top teams in the recreation league in town.  So, was the week of the championship game, all the kids were super excited.  They have gone almost undefeated the whole season and we parents get the email for the championship game, Friday, June 9, 2023 at 6pm.  So we all show up to practice the night before, Thursday and I overhear 4 parents telling us that the softball team will have their championship tomorrow night at 6pm as well.  So, now me as a parent listening I start to wonder how these kids are going to make both games.  Well, Friday night rolls around and my daughter, eager to go to her game we pull up, she’s all excited and I don’t know how to tell her that 4 of her teammates and good teammates won’t be here to help win their game.  So as she walks on the field with this big smile, I set up my chair and can see her smile start declining as we get closer to the start and four of her teammates are missing.  She get to the center of the field, gives me a look and all I see is disappointment.  My poor daughter, she was part of this team that worked together the entire season, worked hard to kick butt and win to make it here to the championship, just to be let down by some of her teammates.

This is an example of a team that did not follow Tuckerman’s 1965, it was a team that formed a bond but otherwise had opposite goals.  The soccer team set a goal to play as a team, however goal setting has two different attributes.  A team goal and an individual goal.  It shows that “research with individual athletes showing the importance of goal setting suggests potential value of a goal setting with groups.  However, research examining team goal setting has been less common. (Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts, 2016)” Which in this case shows.  It shows that the team had a goal of winning, winning the individual games but the individual players has goals of being in their own championships on teams that they felt they excelled in better.  Such as the four that felt they excelled in softball and wanted to be part of that championship.  All in all, Tucker’s 1965 could have been more useful and effective if there was no such things a double roster, for children on recreation teams.  I understand the importance of giving children the choice of sports and allowing them to try different ones, but for those who double roster it can negatively affect their teammates and the goals that those teams have.

Reference 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

If you have ever been a part of a sports team, you may be aware of how cohesion affects team performance. Cohesion can be defined as “a dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of member affective needs” (Gruman et al., 2017). Cohesion is multidimensional, dynamic, affective, and instrumental. Multidimensional refers to the idea that cohesion is not based on a singular factor, but multiple interrelated factors. Dynamic means that cohesion can fluctuate over time, it does not always stay the same. Affective refers to the idea that the emotional state of group members can affect cohesion. If one member is feeling incapable, other members might adopt that mindset. Lastly, instrumental refers to the idea that goals and objectives help a team remain united. In this article, I will define multiple different aspects related to team cohesion, as well as relate my own team experience to these definitions.

There are “two main dimensions of cohesion; social cohesion and task cohesion” (Gruman et al., 2017). Social cohesion refers to the team’s sense of cohesion that is based on social dynamics. On my high school volleyball team, we had an average level of social cohesion. We were not close friends that spent time together outside of practice, but we had social connections to one another during practice. Task cohesion refers to the team’s sense of cohesion that is based on the task at hand. Task cohesion can be high when members may not interact socially, but will work together effectively to achieve the task (winning a game). It is important to have one, if not both of these aspects to create an effective team. Before a team can have task or social cohesion, it is important that the members accept their roles. If there are too many individuals trying to be leaders, there will be no effective communication and the team will clash. There should be clear roles assigned, as well as role acceptance.

Does cohesion directly cause team performance? Mullen and Copper found that task cohesion significantly predicted team performance, while another study found that social cohesion may actually cause performance to decline. Based on these results from multiple studies, cohesion and performance may be bidirectional, meaning that cohesion can predict performance and vice versa. Performance is based on a wide range of factors. In my own experience, I can confirm that cohesion and performance are bidirectional. There were instances when my team would clash with one another, and our performance in a game would decline. In other instances, our team found strong cohesion and performed extremely well. While this idea may not be accurate for some teams, I can see the connection from my own experience.

There are many factors that influence team performance, some of which I have highlighted above. To form a strong team, you will need cohesion, self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to complete a task), a coach with a democratic approach, and effective communication. Luckily, there are many ways to increase these factors on your own team.

Resources:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W. & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks; CA: Sage Publications.

I never thought I would see the day. Football and psychology become one. I have never been into sports, especially when it comes to watching them on TV. Now that I live with my boyfriend, Monday nights are now for football. Since I love him oh so much, I have been trying to get into it instead of just sitting on my phone the whole time. I try to engage and ask questions and learn the game, because I know it makes him happy. Plus, my Tuesday nights are now dedicated to Dancing with the Stars, and I need him to be equally dedicated to my show. It’s just more fun that way!

Oh, how I can’t wait for the next football game now, to bring the world of psychology into the game. The one place my boyfriend thought was safe. Nope, I can’t wait to go all Dr. Phil on him. I’ll inform him on the cohesiveness of the team, each player’s lack of self-efficacy and dissect the coach’s style and how it affects the team. He will hate it, and I will love every minute of it. I swear I am not trying to ruin football for him, so I don’t have to sit through it anymore.

We were just watching the Eagles vs. NY Jets last night. So, this one player, Zach Wilson, who’s a quarterback, kind of wasn’t doing too well throwing the ball. (I hardly know how this works so bear with me.) Wilson tries to make a pass and it doesn’t go well, and all I could think about when reading this chapter was the choking theory. Choking in sports refers to an athlete showing a brief decline in performance while under pressure. (Gruman, et al., 2017) I feel like Wilson, “choked,” maybe even a few times during this game. There are two theories that researchers use to describe why athletes choke, but there’s one that I feel fits what happened to Wilson.

Distraction Theory suggests that athletes fall victim to choking when they process worry and self-doubt at the same time, while still trying to focus on the information needed to perform the skill. (Gruman, et al., 2017) I say this because I feel like Wilson wasn’t playing very well, so he may already have some anxiety about his ability to complete the pass. Confidence beliefs are a major determinant of an athlete’s performance. (Gruman, et al., 2017) Because Wilson hadn’t been playing well already, that lack of confidence in himself might have cost him the pass he was hoping for.

Maybe a little collective efficacy, which is the groups shared belief that they can work together to achieve a certain outcome would be helpful here. (Gruman, et al., 2017) I feel the NY Jets could come together a little better and improve their overall group cohesiveness to gain some confidence as individuals and in their team, since we know this loss could affect how they play the next time around. Anyway, finally, a real reason to watch Football that doesn’t involve Taylor swift. With that being said, she’s the only reason I know who Travis Kelce is or the Kansas City Chiefs, if nothing else, its great advertisement.

Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591