Summary
Moderate optimism, particularly for the outcomes you can’t control; defensive pessimism in the more challenging situations for which you can help control the outcome.
You may have heard of the many benefits associated with optimism: improved health and emotional well-being, greater performance at school and work, better relationships, and overall enhanced adjustment in multiple life domains (Gruman et al., 2017). The expectation of positive outcomes can influence one’s thinking and behavior, in ways that are congruent with attaining desirable consequences. Pessimism, on the other hand, reflects negative outcome expectancies, which can be demotivating and lead to counterproductive attitudes and behaviors.
A person’s explanatory style influences their outcome expectancies, which in turn can influence their behaviors (Gruman et al., 2017). For example, someone who is generally optimistic will tend to attribute positive events or outcomes in their life to internal, stable, and global causes (Seligman, 2011). For example, “I earned the promotion at work because I work hard, I am dependable, and my supervisors value my efforts.” Furthermore, optimistic individuals will often attribute undesirable outcomes in their life to external, unstable, and specific circumstances. An example might be, “I had a fender-bender because it was dark and rainy, and the other driver was distracted when they turned without yielding the right-of-way.” Those with a pessimistic explanatory style have the opposite patterns of making attributions for positive and negative outcomes, compared to someone with an optimistic explanatory style.
Individuals who are generally pessimistic can have a lower quality of life in multiple domains (Gruman et al., 2017). Attribution retraining can help with reframing positive and negative outcomes toward a more optimistic and less pessimistic approach. However, is pessimism ever beneficial? Yes – in the case of defensive pessimism (Khazan, 2014). Defensive pessimism can be described as a coping strategy, particularly for individuals who are prone to anxiety (Norem & Cantor, 1986). In essence, the individual believes that different outcomes are possible, including some that are undesirable. They set low expectations, but also take appropriate actions to prevent or reduce the occurrence of a negative outcome. This is an adaptive mechanism, both to reduce the feeling of anxiety as well as to mitigate the likelihood of an undesirable consequence.
What does defensive pessimism look like in practice? This could be anxiety over performing well on an exam or in a course, and therefore taking the necessary steps to learn the material, prepare for the exam, and seek academic assistance as needed. If one is invited for a job interview and is anxious about getting hired, they may research the company, anticipate a variety of questions that the interviewers may ask, do practice interviews with a coach, and dress to impress for the interview. If someone is traveling and worried about things that could go wrong in the process, they may plan to arrive at the airport several hours ahead of time, double-check the confirmed housing accommodations, pack essential items in a carry-on bag, and look for any travel-related updates before leaving their home. Note that, in each of these examples, this form of pessimism comes with anticipation of possible negative outcomes but also with strategies to reduce the likelihood of each occurring. Rather than being demotivating or destructive, defensive pessimism motivates the individual to take productive actions.
This type of coping strategy is more common in people with anxiety, as they may be more likely to consider the negative outcomes of a variety of scenarios as well as strategies to minimize or altogether avoid such outcomes (Gruman et al., 2017; Norem & Cantor, 1986). Interestingly, someone who practices defensive pessimism may even outperform an optimist of similar abilities (Gruman et al., 2017). And in fact, asking people who use this coping style to instead adopt an optimistic outlook can even reduce their task performance, interfering with the management of their anxiety and causing more anxiety (Norem & Chang, 2002).
The constructs of optimism and pessimism are more nuanced than originally thought. Very high optimism doesn’t serve people well when such expectations are unattainable; for example, if that means expecting unrealistic health outcomes following diagnosis with a terminal illness (Gruman et al., 2017). Or someone who is overly optimistic about performing well on an exam or assignment but doesn’t put in the work that would allow that level of success (del Mar Ferradas, 2020). Optimism and pessimism are also not necessarily on the same scale; it is possible to be high in both optimism and pessimism, in either to varying degrees, or in neither (Gruman et al., 2017). Optimism and pessimism each appear to serve important, situation-dependent functions in life. Perhaps the best advice is for a balanced outlook on life: optimistic, but not naively so. If you are someone who is prone to anxiety, defensive pessimism is a productive and adaptive strategy (Khazan, 2014; Norem & Cantor, 1986). If you tend toward pessimism, perhaps adopting some strategies to mitigate negative outcomes can improve the functionality of that outcome expectancy. Said another way: Moderate optimism, particularly for the outcomes you can’t control, defensive pessimism in the more challenging situations for which you can help control the outcome.
References:
Del Mar Ferradas, M., Freire, C., Nunez, J. C., & Regueiro, B. (2020). The relationship between self-esteem and achievement goals in university students: The mediating and moderating role of defensive pessimism. Sustainability, 12: 7531-7545.
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applying social psychology to the good life: Balancing optimism and pessimism. In: Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd Ed.). SAGE.
Khazan, O. (2014, Sept. 12). The upside of pessimism. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/09/dont-think-positively/379993/
Norem, J. K. & Cantor, N. (1986). Defensive pessimism: Harnessing anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6): 1208-1217.
Norem, J. K. & Chang, E. C. (2002). The positive psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58: 993-1001.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New York, NY. Free Press.
Tags: #anxiety, defensive pessimism, optimism