Motivation is the key to success. It fuels us to complete tasks and goals we set for ourselves in order to better our lives. However, without proper motivational techniques, some of us fall short on our “to do” list causing a build up of responsibilities that can lead to stress and more procrastination among both students and adults. Procrastination as defined by Gruman et al. (2017) as the delaying of a task or obligation. Procrastinating in college can lead to poorer grade outcomes, depression and anxiety, and a lack of effort in one’s personal life, but with proper motivation techniques, students can complete their work on time and with effort to feel more accomplished and in control of their accomplishments.

Introducing, academic self concept. This is the thoughts and feelings students have about themselves as compared to other students (Gruman et al., 2017). This can affect both their motivation and performance in school in positive or negative ways depending on what they determine themselves to be. If a student feels they are on the right track and believes they are a good student, they are more likely to engage in self motivation techniques and perform well in college.

Now how can we motivate ourselves to increase our academic self concept and complete assignments on time? Research suggests staying focused on the larger picture rather than smaller obstacles (“Eye on the Prize,” 2023). Instead of dreading homework or assignments, think of the degree that you will be getting in the end. Whether it is college or high school, a bigger goal in mind can make the little tasks seem simple. Students can also have a more positive mindset on those smaller tasks they are carrying out. Celebrating the smaller assignments can lead to more motivation and a better outlook on oneself. Organization can also be an immense help in getting responsibilities done. By prioritizing certain assignments by their due date and importance, students can schedule certain times to work on them. This can prevent us from going out or binging TV when a project may be due the next day. Engaging in nonacademic activities instead is self-handicapping which is a form of procrastination (Gruman et al., 2017).

Now focusing back to self concept. Future time perspective is a tool students can use to focus on that bigger picture of graduating and forming a career. A study by Godwin & Kirn (2020), suggests using FTP and domain-specific motivation techniques can improve both motivation and major interest in students. This can keep them certain of the path they are on and motivated to continue it towards a future career. This role identity technique can increase persistence during time in college when it may seem impossible, or students may not see a benefit to completing their degree (Godwin & Kirn, 2020). Now go get those assignments done!

Eye on the prize: Tips for staying motivated in college: Nu. National University. (2023, August 7). https://www.nu.edu/blog/eye-on-the-prize-tips-for-staying-motivated-in-college/

Godwin A. & Kirn A. (2020). Identity-based motivation: Connections between first-year students’ engineering role identities and future-time perspectives. J Eng Educ. 109: 362–383. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1002/jee.20324

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). In Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Sage.

The Public Goods Problem is a social dilemma that focuses on contributing to public goods and the possible losses. The Public Goods Dilemma centers around the decision to contribute your time, energy, or money to something that will contribute to the common good. For example, if your community is building a public park and playground, you could let others do all the funding and building, and still use the public goods once they are available, but there’s a chance that because you didn’t contribute, it won’t come to fruition as there wasn’t enough help. On the other hand, if you do contribute, you’re cutting into your resources even if you benefit in the end, and there’s also a chance that it could still fail, and you’d have wasted some of your resources (Nelson, A. (2024) Social Dilemmas, courses.worldcampus.psu.edu, https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/canvas/fa24/22481–16074/content/05_lesson/02_page.html)

One of the main facets to this dilemma is the usage of resources, and the lack of certainity surrounding benefit. Of course, if you lent some of your resources and it got built, you would obviously benefit, however, the benefits aren’t guaranteed. To add to that, there’s a chance you could not lend any resources and still be able to benefit from the public good. However, the other side of the dileema is if you don’t lend you resources, it might not come to fruition, and you won’t benefit at all. However, in that scenario, you wouldn’t have lost any resources.

I’d like to add to this scenario and point out that even if the public good didn’t come to fruition, there may still be benefits to helping. Several studies have shown that there are benefits to volunteering, even if the volunteer work is done to get something out of it. In a 2018 article put out by Yeung and associates, they found that volunteering actually resulted in health benefits. In the study, Yeung and associates used data from the 2004 Survey of Texas adults, and evaluated the outcomes of individuals in the survey who indicated that they had participated in volunteer work. After identifying those individuals, they separated them into two groups: the other-oriented volunteering group and self-oriented volunteering group. Other-oriented volunteering was defined as volunteering for reasons of alturism and the betterment of humanity or the world, whereas self-oriented volunteering was volunteering for any organization related to recreation, arts, careers, education, or political campaigns. After analyzing the data, the researchers found that other-oriented volunteering and self-oriented volunteering resulted in improved outcomes in mental and physical health, life satisfaction, and social well-being. Other-oriented volunteering also had the benefit of lowering depressive symptoms, while self-oriented volunteering did not. Other-oriented volunteering was more beneficial to health outcomes, while self-oriented volunteering was more beneficial to social outcomes (Yeung et. al., 2018)

This study highlights that when it comes to volunteering, there will always be benefits to your participation. The Public Goods Dilemma deals with the uncertainity of benefits if resources are used. While the public good may not come to fruition, if the resource being used is time, there will always be benefits to volunteering your time. Given the health and social outcomes that result from volunteering, you can be certain in saying “it’s good to be good”

Works Cited

Nelson, A. (2024) Social Dilemmas, courses.worldcampus.psu.edu, https://courses.worldcampus.psu.edu/canvas/fa24/22481–16074/content/05_lesson/02_page.html

Yeung, J. W., Zhang, Z., & Kim, T. Y . (2018). V olunteering and health benefits in general adults: Cumulative effects and forms. BMC Public Health, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4561-8

For many of us, the important relationships in our lives impact us in both positive and negative ways. Whether it’s a friend or a partner these relationships, good or bad, can leave a lasting impression as we continue to navigate the world around us. However, a question presents itself, how can we improve the quality of these relationships? By using an article from Amy Canevello and Jennifer Crocker (2010), the goal of this blog post is to take their findings and share their knowledge on what may potentially increase the quality of one’s relationships.

According to Canevello and Crocker (2010) the quality of one’s close relationships can affect their physical and mental health. A relationship deemed “poor” typically causes a lot of stressful feelings to occur as well as a general lack of respect for one’s well-being (Canevello & Crocker, 2010, p. 1). A lot of us can relate to experiences where the close relationships in our lives have strongly impacted our mental or physical well-being. Their claim heavily emphasizes the need for our close relationships to be more positive as it can negatively impact our entire life whether we’re aware of it or not. Going forward it’s important as humans that we recognize how impactful the relationships in our lives can be, regardless of if it’s intentional or not.

Later on, in their article the authors introduced what they believe to be a strong indicator of a positive relationship, responsiveness. They claim that responsiveness relates to an individual’s ability to portray that they understand one’s point of view, validate one’s feelings, and generally cares about the other person in the relationship (Canevello & Crocker, 2010, p. 2). Personally for me, someone’s level of attentiveness towards what I’m saying is a huge indicator of whether or not I view our relationship as positive.

In summary, the relationships in our lives impact us in more ways than we can count on our own two hands. It’s important as we continue to navigate and explore our lives to remember that relationships are often a two way street. One should consider their self-awareness regarding how they treat others as not only a gift but an ability to improve the close relationships surrounding them. Overall, it’s important for us as a species that heavily relies on connection with one another to continue to learn about the ways we can influence our relationships positively.

References:

Canevello, A., & Crocker, J. (2010). Creating good relationships: responsiveness, relationship quality, and interpersonal goals. Journal of personality and social psychology, 99(1), 78–106. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018186

Like those who have come before, we find ourselves captive to a routine schedule of fear. In particular as stewards of the twenty-first century, we are keenly familiar with the cadence, dismissal, and subsequent anticipation of contemporary social unrest. Be it through the sensationalism of mass homicide; polarization of social policy; or the attribution of the world’s evils to, and thus the continued marginalization of, undesirable “Others”. Subsequently, one could reason that this degree of exposure to such issues conditions individuals to into accepting their social reality as intrinsically negative. Such may be posited through cultivation theory (Dolliver et al., 2018; Gruman et al., 2017), that is, the salience of these events through mass media leads to the public to suspect their lives as dangerous (Dolliver et al., 2018). Interestingly, however, there is reason to also suspect that this fear ultimately affects how people may predict future outcomes within their life, particularly aligning with a pessimistic lens (Steenvoorden & van der Meer, 2017).

Pessimism, which may be broadly defined as the expectation of negative future outcomes, has been associated with various detrimental effects, including a decline in physical and psychological health, academic performance, and relationship satisfaction (Gruman et al., 2017; Scheier et al., 2021). Additionally, like optimism, research has highlighted the potential of this form of negative outcome expectancy to be self-fulfilling, in that individuals are likely to behave in such a manner as to confirm their negative cognitions (Gruman et al., 2017). That said, how would this concept line up with fear, especially concerning that of larger, societal-level issues and events? Importantly, can pessimism even be generalized at such a level?

Despite the scarcity of literature on the subject, scholars have noted the occurrence of “societal pessimism”, primarily as a condition of a larger consensus and public opinion. (Steenvoorden & van der Meer, 2017). Put simply, the wider attribution of pessimism is the product of how those within (a) society perceive that society as a whole. Likewise, the state of larger social trust is argued to play a significant role in the presence of societal pessimism, particular regarding social institutions. For example, ambivalence and distrust of those in power may lead people to, in turn, formulate negative expectations about policy measures and the larger political future of a given country. It may even lead to a decline in political engagement (e.g., declines in voter turnout, decreases in public protests), thus making unlikely any chance of redress (Steenvoorden & van der Meer, 2017).

Is this a phenomenon that occurs without the potential for positive outcomes or measured steps forward? I would submit not. Just as defensive pessimism can be used to help constructively shape one’s perception of future events (essentially motivating preferable outcomes), so too may it be amplified at the societal level. Perhaps this idea of “societal defensive/constructive pessimism” could be used to evaluate both historical and contemporary issues of social distrust and unease. It certainly warrants further empirical consideration.

References:

Dolliver, M. J., Kenney, J. L., Reid, L. W., & Prohaska, A. (2018). Examining the relationship between media consumption, fear of crime, and support for controversial criminal justice policies using a nationally representative sample. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 34(4), 399-420.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Scheier, M. F., Swanson, J. D., Barlow, M. A., Greenhouse, J. B., Wrosch, C., & Tindle, H. A. (2021). Optimism versus pessimism as predictors of physical health: A comprehensive reanalysis of dispositional optimism research. American Psychologist, 76(3), 529-548.

Steenvoorden, E. H., & van der Meer, T. W. (2017). Continent of pessimism or continent of realism? A multilevel study into the impact of macro-economic outcomes and political institutions on societal pessimism, European Union 2006-2012. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 58(3), 192-214.

In times of stress, grief, or any other mental struggles, the strength of community can play a crucial role in our mental health. Social support is recognized as a key factor in maintaining well emotional regulation and resilience, whether it’s from friends, family, or just members in your community. When people face challenges, the sense of belonging and the availability of emotional and practical support can really help protect us against mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression. This support from the community can help build a sense of validation and assurance which can help individuals feel less alone and more capable of coping with difficult situations. Without this sense of community, individuals may feel disconnected and alone which can exacerbate mental health struggles.

One theory that explains the importance of social support is the social learning theory by Albert Bandura. This theory emphasizes the role of observation and modeling in learning behaviors (Bandura, 1986). When individuals are a part of a supportive community, they often observe how others cope with stress and conflict, which can help serve as a guide for their own responses to such things. Positive coping strategies shared within a network can encourage individuals to adopt similar positive behaviors which will help everyone in the community manage their challenges more effectively. This would bring a more collective approach to overall well-being in the community.

Another key aspect to social support is the ability to maintain a sense of belonging and identity. Henri Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory explains that individuals derive part of their self-concept from groups in which they belong. Being part of a supportive community helps individuals feel understood and valued. This sense of belonging can help reduce feelings of loneliness and isolation that contribute to mental health problems like depression and anxiety. When people feel that they are part of something larger than themselves, they are more likely to experience emotional stability, as they know they have a safety net and people they can rely on.

Additionally, social support provides resources that can significantly impact mental health. This includes practical assistance, such as help with daily tasks, financial support, or even just a listening ear during a time of need. Strong communities can also promote healthy behaviors such as physical activity, healthy eating, maintaining a healthy mindset, and seeking professional health when needed. The power of community is very strong. It can strengthen individuals mental health by offering all around support and fosters the sense of belonging we all need.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

The Attachment Theory, developed by the psychologist John Bowlby, explains how our early emotional bonds formed with our caregivers can shape how our relationships are with others throughout life. These early experiences we have with our caregivers create our “attachment styles” which influence how we manage intimacy, trust, and emotional security in our personal relationships. By understanding the four main attachment styles (secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized), we can recognize patterns in our relationships and work towards making healthier connections with others. Your infantile attachment was not a matter of choice for you, since it is a combination of biological influences and social learning (Gruman, 2016). However, having a deeper understanding of your attachment style and the attachment style of your partner, friends, and family can aid in a healthier relationships and deeper understandings of one another.

The first attachment style is the most common attachment style, which is secure attachment. This attachment style is the foundation of healthy relationships. People with a secure attachment style feel comfortable with others with both intimacy and independence. They trust others easily, communicate effectively, and resolve conflicts constructively. This style usually stems from consistent and responsive caregiving during childhood, creating a sense of safety and emotional stability. Securely attached people are supportive, understanding, and capable of forming deep emotional bonds.

The second attachment style is anxious attachment. Anxiously attached individuals crave closeness with others but also fear rejection or abandonment. They can become overly dependent on their partners and constantly seek reassurance and validation. Individuals who are anxiously attached may have emotional highs and lows, since they are highly sensitive to perceived signs of disinterest or rejection. This style of attachment is typically a result from inconsistent caregiving where love and attention were unpredictable. This leaves the person uncertain about their security in future relationships. Evidence shows that emotional reassurance and consistent communication can help mitigate these tendencies anxiously attached people have.

The third attachment style is avoidant attachment, also called dismissive avoidant. People with this attachment style often prioritize independence and self-sufficiency, often at the expense of emotional intimacy. these individuals may struggle with vulnerability and tend to suppress emotions, creating a barrier to deeper relationships. In Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Experiment, she found that avoidantly attached infants showed little distress when their caregivers left the room and the infants also avoided their caregivers when they returned to the room. In adult relationships, avoidantly attached individuals may resist closeness, struggle with emotional expression, and withdraw when they are faced with conflict (Ainsworth, 1970).

Understanding these attachment styles is a powerful tool for personal growth and success in relationships. They can help you understand and recognize unhealthy patterns, improve communication, and build stronger and more supportive relationships with others. With self-awareness, personal growth, and, if needed, therapeutic support, it is possible to develop a more secure attachment style and create deeper and more lasting connection with others. Understanding these attachment styles in others can also help you understand others’ individual needs.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

McLeod, S. (2023). Mary Ainsworth – Attachment theory. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/mary-ainsworth.html

Traditionally, research has had an image as subjective truth-seeking, with researchers trying to minimize personal biases within themselves and to remain detached from the subjects. Yet, in addressing real-world problems, traditional methods often fall short. That opens the door to participatory research, a value-driven method whereby researchers actually become part of the communities they serve in order to affect serious change. Unlike classical scientific methods, participatory research acknowledges that detachment is either impossible or not needed when tackling social issues. 

Participatory research is rooted in anthropology’s participant-observer method, where early researchers joined tribes to document cultural practices. While this approach unearthed valuable insights, it also highlighted inherent challenges, such as in-group bias, a concept explained by social identity theory. Social identity theory suggests that people gain self-esteem from their group membership and often display favoritism toward their “in-group” while overlooking its flaws. For example, early anthropologists unconsciously idealized indigenous peoples, which in turn perpetuated the myth of the “noble savage.” This serves as a strong example of how participatory researchers must remain critically reflective even as they work within communities. 

A contemporary example of participatory research is its application in public health initiatives. For example, researchers studying water scarcity in rural communities often work with local leaders to find sustainable solutions. In this way, they do not only collect data but also involve the community in co-creating interventions. However, there are risks to this approach. Immersion can lead to a loss of objectivity, as researchers may unconsciously prioritize outcomes that align with their own goals or those of the community they grow attached to. Transparency and methodological rigor are essential to mitigate these risks.

Despite its limitations, participatory research holds immense potential to drive social change. For example, activist researchers in environmental science often produce actionable findings that incentivize policy reform. Others might say they have vested interests in their cause, but their research often leads to tangible changes in policy. But ethical considerations are paramount. Who pays for the research? What biases might influence the findings? By critically evaluating these factors, participatory research can maintain credibility while advancing its mission.

In conclusion, participatory research challenges the boundaries of traditional scientific inquiry, offering a powerful tool for addressing societal challenges. In research intended to promote social change, total detachment is not always feasible—or morally right—even though objectivity is crucial. Participatory research bridges the gap between science and practical impact by combining rigorous methodologies with a dedication to community empowerment, making it an essential strategy in today’s globalized society.

Pinker, S. (2002). The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Viking Press.

Binge drinking is a wide spread issue that we see a lot in todays generations. This issue is especially prominent in college students and college aged students. Even here at our own college binge drinking is very persistent. From first hand knowledge I have encountered many situations while working at the bars downtown where a student consumes too much alcohol and has to be kicked out or cut off. This happens a couple times in one night during the weekends and on big events like football games, or bar crawl weekends, where students set out to get blacked out on purpose.

The Rescue Agency website goes into specific details on their plans to help alleviate the issue of binge drinking in young adults and to stop drinking in underage individuals. they use a model described as the decision blocks framework. This framework is described as using education that may be unfamiliar to the audience to assist them in reconsidering unhealthy habits. They first identify the problem and what might be the motivating cause of the issue, then they conduct research tailored to the audience, and then they produce campaigns to influence the audience.

The bing drinking decision block framework identified the problem as not only the binge drinking but the un helpful campaigns that preexist. they then go onto describe these campaigns as ones that focus on unrealistic expectations of these young adults, which consists of them insinuating that they should just abstain from drinking all together. They strive to create a more realistic campaign that involved giving helpful tips to avoid binge drinking and making the audience aware of the consequences that are most important to them. They also support the drinkers and give tactics on how to moderately drink and maintain their safety.

On the website they then provide a link to their campaigns which are a set of short videos that provide these said tips that they researched. In the tips they recommend 3 things from the ones that are immediately linked at the bottom. They recommend to eat before you go out, drink water while they are out, and to avoid mixing alcohol with other stimulants. Not only do they provide these fun videos they also have catchy slogans to explain the tip. in the videos they also include jokes and a sort of slang that young adults my age are used to hearing. I think they chose this format because it is the most relevant to our generation and it would catch our attention. I will admit while I was watching the videos they did have my attention and they added a sense of humor which all made the videos make me feel like I was the audience as a young adult myself.

“Health Topic: Alcohol.” Rescue Agency, rescueagency.com/health-topic/alcohol. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.

During infancy, we develop an attachment style that carries on throughout our lives. When you are an infant, you fall into either a secure attachment style or one of the insecure attachment styles: anxious/ambivalent or avoidant. Moving into adulthood, attachment styles expand into four types: secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing (Gruman et al., 2016). The question is, can an individual’s attachment style change from infancy to adolescence, or do they generally remain stable? Adolescence is a time when individuals go through great developmental changes, so examining if their attachment styles change as well is important.

Adolescents during this developmental period often seek independence from parental figures and try to form their own identity. With figuring out who they are, changes with emotions, the evolution of building relationships, and forming attachments romantically or platonically. Researchers Theisen et al. (2018) found that adolescents “gradually increase in their levels of avoidance.” This could be due to their need for independence they are seeking and to form their own identity without their parent’s influence. They are more concerned with forming romantic relationships or friendships, thus becoming unconcerned with their parent (Gruman et al., 2016). Another reason for this might be that because they are in this transitional period, they may not feel comfortable opening up to their parents. They are beginning to form their own thoughts and opinions during this time and might feel as though their parents misunderstand them or they are choosing to rebel against their parents.

Another finding in this study was in relation to adolescents’ attachment anxiety. This is when a person has the need for closeness but still fears that they will be abandoned (Gruman et al., 2016). Researchers found that “youth tend to maintain relatively low levels of attachment-anxiety” (Theisen et al., 2018). Attachment anxiety neither increased nor decreased, meaning that adolescents levels of anxiety remain fairly stable during this developmental period. The researchers did not examine attachment styles in regards to friendships or romantic relationships, but only parental relationships. This stableness in anxiety they are reporting could have shifted over towards peer relationships, types of relationships. Adolescents may be experiencing more anxiety towards peer rejection, or they might have newfound confidence in these relationships.

Attachment styles are an important part of being able to form bonds with others. During adolescence specifically, it seems to be a process that evolves. While the study identifies factors that can change attachment styles during this period, it leaves room for more research to be conducted. It is limited because it does not assess the adolescents attachment styles to their peers but their parents. If adolescents are seeking independence from parents during this developmental period and forming bonds with peers, then that needs to be studied as well.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. (US).

Theisen, J. C., Fraley, R. C., Hankin, B. L., Young, J. F., & Chopik, W. J. (2018). How do attachment styles change from childhood through adolescence? findings from an accelerated longitudinal cohort study. Journal of Research in Personality, 74, 141-146.

Social Change Research comes in several different forms, but the general idea is that researchers are actively changing something in a social situation that they are a part of. it seeks to create meaningful change by exploring the root causes of social problems, such as inequality, and discrimmination. Participatory research is when the researchers are a part of the community or other social situation and are invested in trying to learn something about an issue in the community.

Social change research is grounded in the belief that research should not only generate knowledge but also inspire action. It included mixed approaches, such as case studies, ethnography, and surveys. The findings of social change research aims to inform policies and interventions, and influencing societal attitudes. Participatory research enhances social change efforts by engaging those that were directly affected by the issue that is being studied. it has effectiveness in addressing local challenges, such as public health crisis or environmental concerns. It also ensures that the interventions are culturally relevant, sustainable, and aligned with the community needs. This model not only empowers participants but also enriches the research with diverse perspectives.

Both of these create a powerful framework for handling issues, While social change research provides a more broad foundation, participatory research links between both theory and practice by directly involving communities. Its very evident in projects like community based participatory research which has been used several time to address issues such as housing inequality and healthcare disparities.

These are both sessional tools for creating a more equitable and inclusive society. By addressing systemic challenges and empowering communities, these approaches foster sustainable, community driven solutions which is a great thing for everyone.

References: Reason, Peter, and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice. SAGE Publications, 2008.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems

Have you ever wondered why some people thrive in close relationships while others struggle with trust or intimacy? The answer may lie in a concept explored in psychology: Attachment Theory. Originally developed by John Bowlby and later expanded by Mary Ainsworth, this theory explains how early bonds with caregivers shape our behaviors and expectations in adult relationships. Understanding attachment styles can be a game-changer in fostering stronger connections with others.

Attachment Theory points out three main styles: secure, anxious, and avoidant, although most people will exhibit a mix of these (called disorganized attachment). Secure individuals usually feel comfortable with intimacy and can depend on others for support without giving up much independence. Those with an anxious attachment style are worried about abandonment and require ongoing reassurance, whereas individuals with avoidant attachment emphasize independence to such an extent that opening up becomes impossible. Research shows that about 50-60% of adults have a secure attachment style, leaving a significant proportion navigating challenges linked to anxious or avoidant tendencies (Fraley & Shaver, 2000).

This framework becomes incredibly relevant in everyday life. Take, for example, if a couple in in the middle of having a disagreement. A securely attached partner would speak in a calm manner about the problem to find a solution; an avoidant partner would shut down emotionally, and an anxious partner would react with high emotion and a fear that the relationship is in jeopardy. Those patterns can create conflict that might not be wanted, but knowing about attachment styles is an opportunity for change. The couple can learn to communicate in ways that reassure and support each other, resulting in healthier dynamics. We can work on ourselves as well through learning about attachment styles.

Reflecting on our own attachment styles can also be transformative. By recognizing patterns in how we approach relationships, we can make intentional choices to challenge negative tendencies. For example, someone with an avoidant style might work on expressing vulnerability, while an anxious partner might practice self-soothing techniques to reduce dependency on constant reassurance. These efforts can improve romantic relationships but also friendships and family connections.

In a world where relationships are vital to well-being, understanding attachment theory provides a powerful tool; not just for romantic relationships, but friendships, and self-growth as well. By learning to identify and adapt our attachment behaviors, we can build connections that are not only more fulfilling but also more resilient. So, which attachment style resonates with you, and how might this knowledge enhance your relationships?

Fraley, R. C., & Shaver, P. R. (2000). Adult romantic attachment: Theoretical developments, emerging controversies, and unanswered questions. Review of General Psychology, 4(2), 132–154.

Social psychology offers a valuable insight into understanding and addressing the challenges individual’s face in managing their thoughts, relationships, health, and their mental well-being. We tend to think more about other people in situations than ourselves which can hurt our mental health and the relationships we have with people. By being able to understand how people think feel and behave in certain contexts, many social psychologists develop strategies to foster healthier behaviors, stronger relationships, and improved mental resilience.

Understanding social dynamics is essential for building and maintaining healthy relationships around you. The many concepts used are empathy, social influence, and group dynamics that provide tools to navigate interpersonal conflicts that can help foster stronger connections. We can do a-lot of things that can help us misunderstand people and ways that can help us improve communication between one another.

Social psychology contributes significantly to improving physical and mental health outcomes. Behavioral interventions like goal setting and self monitoring can help us encourage ourselves to healthier lifestyle choices. In mental health, techniques such as mindfulness, which is something that’s very popular that everyone may use to help us become more aware of our thoughts and feelings so were not overwhelmed by them and were able to be better to manage it. Also social support utilization is great too to help us cope with stress and prevent burnout. Group based interventions such as support groups and therapy help the benefits of social connection to enhance mental well-being.

By being able to apply these principals, many individauls can address challenges in thinking, relationships, physical and our mental health more effectively. It doesn’t only improve individual outcomes but makes us healthier and feel more supported in social environment’s.

References: Bandura, Albert. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Prentice-Hall, 1986.

Everyone around us lives in a community which is the primary setting of where we live. it’s where groups of people interact with one another on a daily basis. It may also be virtual communities too as in working from home you surround yourself with your coworkers all the time on zoom or just calls everyday, that is your community that you’re surrounded by. Communities are fundamental building blocks or human society, offering individuals a sense of belonging, support, and identity.

Communities come in many forms, from small, large, local, national, or international. Each community works different within a framework of norms, traditions, and roles that shape interactions and relationships with many people you’re surrounded by. Its gives you a sense of trust that enables you to work together effectively just like work. Even though many communities can have positive effects, it comes with negative ones too and many challenges along the way. For example, economic inequality, social exclusion, and conflicts arising from diversity. Many groups may also face a lack of representation or resources which can lead to tension around them. The rise of online communities while broadening connections, has introduced issues such as misinformation and reduced face-to-face interactions. Addressing these challenges requires fostering inclusive practices and promoting dialogue to many differences.

Communities are very vital to human connection and process, serving for shared experiences, growth, and problem-solving. By addressing internal challenges and adapting to many global trends, communities can continue to foster that sense of belonging we want and make things better for everyone.

References: Putnam, Robert D. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon & Schuster, 2000.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems

In class, we discussed the educational system, if you’re not sure what it is, it’s the first social interaction for people outside of their families and otherwise limited over network. It’s a way to explore for other diverse ethnic and racial categories but those with many different ways of seeing the world as well. Educating individuals and influencing communities is the backbone of society. In today’s education system, students learn knowledge, develop critical thinking skills and prepare for an ever- changing world. Although educational structures have evolved significantly overtime, they continue to face numerous challenges, including disparities in access to education, curriculum relevance, and adapting to technological advancements.

Education was primarily available to a privileged few, usually religious or elite societal groups. In many parts of the world, reforms have expanded access to education over the centuries. The industrial revolution played a crucial role in shaping the structure of modern school to meet the needs of labor market demands. Despite advancements, educational systems face persistent challenges, including unequal access in developing regions, underfunded schools, and outdated teaching methods. The digital divide is a significant barrier, with many students unable to benefit from online resources due to a lack of technology or internet access. Today many students would prefer to work online as it’s much easier to learn but some students would prefer the face to face learning so they can grasp lessons easier. These innovations promote personalized learning, allowing students to progress at their own pace and explore subjects that align with their interests.

I believe the future of education has changed drastically and it’s harder for students to learn. They must ensure that every student and child has the resources that they need to learn for the best way to succeed in their lives. They also need to balance academic subjects with skills like critical thinking and many more. The modern educational system stands at a crossroad, balancing the legacies of the past with the promise of the future. For education to be successful, it must evolve to be inclusive, adaptive, and forward- thinking. By addressing systemic inequities and embracing innovation. As John Dewey said ” Education is not preporation for life; education is life itself, underscoring its profound role in shaping individuals and society”. We need to do better to make education helpful for everyone and a way to learn the best way we can.

References: Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. New York: Macmillan, 1916.

Social media has become prevalent in our everyday lives and is useful when connecting with others and sharing information. Local governments have even adopted this strategy to reach their constituents, whom they may not normally be able to. They want to diversify this outreach to include members of all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups (Ahn and Jong, 2024). It is important to build a sense of community that includes all members because then policies can get created to benefit all members of a community and not just some.

Politicians have various platforms on social media (e.g., X, Instagram, and Facebook) in order to connect with constituents. They can generate discussions by going live, generating polls/surveys, or forming group chats where people can share their opinions. Another ways that local government can be inclusive is by sharing multilingual content through social media posts. These posts can also have descriptive text for images that help visually impaired individuals or video captions for those who are deaf. This makes the information accessible to all and you can reach many individuals who have social media. Not everyone is able to go to rallies or conventions where a politician might be campaigning, but a lot of people can access social media. Politicians can use social media to bridge this gap between citizens and government by becoming more accessible and responsive (Ahn and Jong, 2024). If there is a crisis that needs to be addressed social media can also provide a direct and immediate line of communicating with a large group of people. People can turn to their local government for support or resources to help during a time of crisis.

Social media provides opportunities for two-way communication so that everyone’s voice can be heard. There is a politician who goes live on Instagram and she often reads through the comments to directly address comments or concerns. This is a way to build community by making sure everyone has access to this information and it holds that politicians accountable and builds trust as well. By doing this, they can actively listen to their constituents and build policies based upon their concerns or questions. This is a way for people to feel heard and seem because they are sharing their opinion and being an active participant in their local community.

Local governments are just beginning to use social media as a way to communicate with their community. It is important that they use social media to hold themselves accountable and to hear and represent all members of their community. They need to make sure that the strategies they are using are inclusive and understanding of the needs of these diverse communities. It is not enough to post on social media, but to be actively engaging with members of the community and policies should reflect this.

Reference

Ahn, Y., & Jong, J. (2024). Community Diversity and Social Media Use in Local Governments. Administration & Society, 56(9-10), 1083-1103.

Activist Research is a bold approach to scholarship that not only seeks to understand the world but also change it. Rooted in principles of social justice and equity, activist research engages with communities to address systemic inequalities. It challenges the traditional method of researcher detachment by focusing on advocacy and activism, prioritizing the needs of those directly impacted by the issues under study. This approach utilizes research as a tool for bettering the world around us.

A key tenet of activist research is the commitment to elevating the concerns of marginalized communities. Researchers collaborate with underrepresented groups to identify urgent issues and push for lasting change. This participatory approach shifts the power dynamics of traditional research by viewing community members not as subjects but partners in research. By focusing on lived experiences and including diverse perspectives, activist research provides insights that can help create solutions to real world problems.

Activist researchers do not shy away from advocacy rather they embrace the responsibility to challenge injustice. Detractors claim this undermines objectivity, but activist researchers believe that neutrality ignores systemic harm. By being upfront about their aims, activist researchers maintain integrity while pursuing rigorous methodologies. They balance their commitment to justice with evidence-based inquiry, ensuring that their work meets academic standards while remaining grounded in the realities of those they are studying.

The impact of activist research extends far beyond academia, translating into solutions that can bring about change. Whether influencing public policy, helping societal initiatives or reshaping public discourse, activist research bridges the gap between knowledge and action. Its emphasis on collaboration, accountability, and justice makes it a vital tool in fixing the most complex social issues facing the world right now. Activist research proves that scholarship can be a catalyst for progress proving that the pursuit of knowledge is inseparable from the pursuit of a better world instead of just being an objective observer like traditional research.

With the growth of the internet as a tool for seeking information, the ability to communicate and build connections with others has likewise expanded across the public. Thanks to the expanse of globalization and networking technology, people are overwhelmingly incorporating the Internet into their pre-established physical connections, creating an online supplement for their communities (Cheng et al., 2019). Interestingly, those communities ostensibly absent within the physical realm, especially those encompassing the most vulnerable and disadvantaged within society, can be found in earnest online (Cheng et al., 2019; Chung, 2013). In either case, the expanse of social communities no longer remains confined to face-to-face networks. That said, among the communities people may find themselves in (on or offline), there remains a constant variable found within those bonds: the presence of social capital. Specifically, those resources found within social bonds have only been made more accessible through the internet and thus bear a significant role in the development of communities online (Cheng et al., 2019).

Based on various disciplines, the concept of “social capital” may broadly refer to the investments found within one’s social bonds. They are the resources one has available from those within their social networks, and thus are cultivated through the mutual establishment and maintenance of those relationships (Adler & Kwon, 2002). For a relatable example, one could imagine the economic or extracurricular opportunities available to a student as a product of their relationship with a faculty member. While the relationship itself may stem from the institutional power dynamics of higher education, those specific professional opportunities are in fact features resulting from the mutual recognition of said relationship (Adler & Kwon, 2002). Additionally, these resources do not necessarily have to be intrinsically material; they may also be social or emotional, for instance, in terms of sustaining trust and affection (Adler & Kwon, 2002). Subsequently, when inserting the layer of online networks, one could suggest that the internet provides yet another avenue of identifying social capital, either through the compensation of networks for those who lack bonds offline (social compensation) or through the enhancement of an already robust offline network (social enhancement; Cheng et al., 2019).

With the former in particular, an understanding of social capital can be useful in the development and negation of a sense of community online. To elaborate, in terms of cultivating a sense of community, the idea of social capital may be found within the element of “integration and fulfillment of needs”; that is, the availability and presence of resources found within the community, as proposed by McMillan and Chavis (1986). I must note, however, that these authors base this on solely the concept of reinforcement, rather than the more abstract possible of martial and relational capital (i.e., social capital). Regardless, the need for these resources remains a salient factor in community development, best exemplified by those in help group-based communities seeking support (Gruman et al., 2016). Specifically, for individuals suffering from chronic diseases or physical/mental conditions, the opportunity to find a desired community of those similar satisfies both the need for information and the need for psychological support. This online group allows one to identify resources that may be lacking or absent within their daily lives while also acting as a buffer (via anonymity) towards potential prejudice levied against them in their face-to-face interactions with out-group members (Gruman et al., 2016).

What was once confined to physical connections among smaller, homogeneous societies, social communities are now ubiquitous across the internet. Further, online communities allow for the diffusion of those resources, opportunities, and support systems intrinsic to the ties found in offline communities. This social capital plays a central role in the larger formulation of communities both on and offline; however, it becomes more acute for those who may struggle to identify communal ties within the physical realm. For many of us, it might be of interest to take this into consideration when reflecting on our own social communities and larger social ties.

References:

Adler, P. S., & Kwon, S. (2002). Social capital: Prospects for a new concept. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 17-40.

Cheng, C., Wang, H., Sigerson, L., & Chau, C. (2019). Do the socially rich get richer? A nuanced perspective on social network site use and online social capital accrual. American Psychological Association: Psychological Bulletin, 145(7), 734-764.

Chung, J. E. (2013). Social interaction in online support groups: Preference for online social interaction over offline social interaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(4), 1408-1414.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

McMillan, D. W., & Chavis, D. M. (1986). Sense of community: A definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is defined as a process of education, research, and action where the line between researcher and the researched is blurred, opening the door to community involvement in addressing the issue. (Brydon-Miller, 1997, p. 658) This type of research is usually used for marginalized communities to address inequities and challenges that they face. I wish to open the door to discussion on the broader application of this methodology in a wider variety of communities that face common issues such as colleges.

College communities face numerous social and functional issues that often get written off as a part of the college experience. I would like to see applications of PAR in a way that allows students to come together and participate in solutions for those issues. This could be in the form of holding town hall meetings where students can present problems and vote on actions to be taken to solve them. This would have to occur continually over the process of the solution constantly changing and adapting through continues dialogue. (Chevalier & Buckles, 2019, p. 315) By regularly reevaluating the issue you can keep heading down an efficient route towards a solution.

Using the Socratic Wheel method I think that a community-based PAR intervention could be very feasible. (Chevalier & Buckles, 2019, pp. 138-139) The Socratic Wheel is a very flexible and easy to implement method used to address simple and complex issues. Using this method participants can easily understand several different variables related to the issue and easily adapt to challenges. It is also useful to visualize the progress of research and action. Through continued dialogue users can branch out and tackle specific variables relating to the primary problem. Even if the problem becomes more complex than previously thought it simplifies it allowing for proper action.

I believe that change does happen within organizations, but people often lack the structure to cause that change. Using PAR in colleges, schools, and institutions can help initiate that change. What other methods would you recommend in those settings? Are there any other settings that you would like to see PAR applied to? It is discussions like these that open the doors for people to see paths towards solutions and creating group unity towards solving issues in itself can help mend damaged communities.

References

Brydon-Miller, M. (1997). Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. Journal of Social Issues, 657-666.

Chevalier, J. M., & Buckles, D. J. (2019). Participatory Action Research: Theory and Methods for Engaged Inquiry. Abingdon: Routledge.

Social change research is an effective means through which social issues may be combated, and justice for those in need may be achieved. Given the proactivity of the provided research in identifying viable programs with real-world implications for different communities, this research effectively narrows the gap between theory and application. Though it has some negative aspects, it is much more effective when done right, professionally, and authoritatively. For instance, Participatory Action Research (PAR), is a type of social transformation research that focuses on the involvement of the members of a community in the identification of problems and in the determination of interventions, at the same time endorsing the subjects in this activity (Brydon-Miller, 1997).

A primary strength is that social change research can identify solutions oriented toward particular settings. In contrast to the fundamental research goals of creating more knowledge, social change research is all about tangible results. For instance, the Rescue Agency uses data to develop health behavior interventions. They learn from their target population and include feedback from their community while dealing with concerns such as smoking and mental health issues. This approach also shows Suntec’s capacity to arrange and conduct the applied research to generate lasting positive changes in public health.

Another advantage is that this development tried to empower those who have been neglected by society. Most social change research engages the target stakeholders hence giving them an upper hand in providing solutions. This tally with Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory which advocates for reciprocal interactions of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors. Forcing behavior change upon others is normally very difficult, and this can be avoided by involving communities in the research process. For example, PAR has been useful in the development of education programs with a positive perspective of students and teachers, thus empowering and making the programs more relevant and effective (Gosin et al., 2003).

It has been claimed that social change research may be subjective because of the activist emphasis. But this criticism fails to appreciate the genre of essentially value-laden scholarship that seeks to challenge and redress structural injustice. Such research is to adhere to ethical standards to justify the scientific merits of its course of the undertaking including aspects of clarity and impartiality. Third, since the research involved in social change focuses on the participation of the members of the concerned community, biases can easily be addressed.

In conclusion, social change research constitutes a critical specialty in contemporary psychological science and population health science. Although issues like bias and resource implementation are present there is no other tool as essential when it comes to driving real change in the community. For Brydon-Miller (1997), the use of both research and activism as a practice offers a valuable chance to construct a more correct society. Since methodological interweaving of theory with practice is inherent in social change research, the proposed and practiced approaches not only advance knowledge about societal issues but also provide solutions to those issues.

References

• Brydon-Miller, M. (1997). Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. Journal of Social Issues, 53(4), 657–666.
• Gosin, M., Dustman, P., Drapeau, A., & Harthun, M. (2003). Participatory action research: Creating an effective prevention curriculum for adolescents in the Southwestern US. Health Education Research, 18(3), 363–379.
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.

I used to work in this public elementary school as a paraprofessional for AS, which stands for Autism Support. I worked with autistic kindergarten students, along with the AS teacher and my fellow paraprofessionals. I remember, during my second week of work, the AS teacher broke down crying in the classroom. I remember her sobbing uncontrollably and saying, “They hate us. This school hates us.” I would find out eventually how right she is. That school did not like their autistic students, and was actually systematically implementing discrimination against them.

Social change research is defined as the type of research that aims to implement social change or impact. This type of research targets public institutions, and how social change can impact the way these institutions interact with groups and individuals–especially those who are systematically disadvantaged. If I could, I would implement social change research aiming to change the systems of public schools in the United States–more specifically with their students who have autism spectrum disorder.

I first realized the issue at hand when I found out that there are changes in the schedule of our students. Apparently, the school board as well as the principal had a meeting about AS, and they agreed on implementing new rules and policies. The previous schedule that the kids had was that in what are referred to as “special classes”, (i.e. art, gym, music, etc.) they would be joining general education students. With the new rules and policies, the school indefinitely decided that each AS student should have a time limit of how long they should stay for each special class. They mentioned that the change in their schedules was needed because the AS students are “being a distraction” to their general education classmates due to their vocal stims and “tantrums”–which are basically panic attacks due to sensory overload.

If I was given the opportunity to work on social change research, it would be to tackle this issue. I would work on this type of research aiming for the right of all students to proper education, including autistic children. I would address the problematic systems of public schools as they punish very young and very vulnerable children just because they display behavior that they deem as “not acceptable.” To gather data, I would interview teachers in AS as well as the parents of AS children. I would interview them about the children, as well as the system of their schools. And then, I would hold a meeting with the school board and the principals of the entire school district. The meeting will be led by autism specialists, highlighting the importance of AS students’ right to education. Training the staff and holding meetings with students about autistic students should be included as well. I sincerely wish that this problem at hand be addressed as a huge, relevant problem, and not just swept under the rug like how the school I previously worked in treated it.

Brydon-Miller, M. (1997). Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. Journal of Social Issues, 53(4), 657-666.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

When we think of research, we usually think of an investigation done systematically to find out something objectively to help unravel facts and truth. When we say the word activist researcher, we almost introduce an oxymoron to our conersation. Is it possible to be a researcher and an activist at the same time? While this very concept may be up for debate, in my opinion, the two cannot exist simultaneously.

Can one be a researcher? Yes. Can someone be an activist? Yes. Combine both of them together at the same time? No. We are taking an objective practice with an inherently unobjective practice that involves more complexities of the human psyche such as morals and values and what one person deems right. Is there moral objectiveness? Yes and no. Yes to the extent that there usually is a “right” and a “wrong” in given situations, however what that may end up looking like for each individual can be very different. For instance, a person should not steal from a store. This is usually a generally correct statement and one that has a general moral righteousness. However, if we take a person that cannot provide for their family and out of desperation, decides to steal food, does our view of the morally correct element change? After all, the store is a part of a billion dollar cooporation, the person is down on their luck because they got fired from a job that was based on a decision that was based on racial discrimination, and they have children at home that need the rent paid and food in their bellies.

While some situations do legitimately require activism, situations that involve research require just that. I believe an activist can utilize research to their own benefit, but it must be pulled from information that was done in a way that reduces to the amount of biases, which is one of the objectives of research.

An activist can have personal investment in what they are doing, and this investment is an essential part of the human psyche, but we must be aware of our intentions behind what we are doing. Can an activist researcher be apart of structural violence? Absolutely. While an Activist Researcher may think they are doing what is right, they may be unaware of the unlying sources that motivate their movement.

Taking a step back from an issue gives us the most objective view of a problem, just like in every day life, and applies to this topic as well. While we cannot completely seperate our human-ness from our research, we can certainly try to minimize it.

References;

Brydon-Miller, Mary. Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. Journal of Social Issues. 53(4). Winter 1997. pp. 657-666.

I will warn at the onset that, rather unfortunately, discussions on the subject of critical race pedagogy (especially Critical Race Theory) remain politically charged despite much clarification by scholars and experts within the field (Legal Defense Fund, 2024). If this is a topic you are unfamiliar with or have only heard in passing, I ask that you read this post in full (as well as the references listed) before engaging. By no means am I myself claiming to be an expert within critical theory nor the teaching of race and ethnicity in America; however, as someone passionate about these topics, I am familiar enough to opine while keeping an open mind of how ignorant I remain as a student. Nevertheless, I hope to inspire some reflection and personal growth as we continue to learn through our journeys as students, adults, and ultimately, humans.

During my second semester at Penn State, specifically at Greater Allegheny, I had the opportunity to present original research at a semesterly research and creativity conference as part of the university’s honors program. As a student of criminology and sociology, my first poster was on the association between Militant Extremist Mindsets (Vukcevic Markovic et al., 2021) and gun ownership among college students. My second poster, however, was on an arguably more heated subject, Critical Race Theory (CRT). In short, the aim of the poster was to inform observers of what CRT is, the current debate surrounding its place within American education, and most starkly, misconceptions found within discourse on the matter. While the idea for the poster initially came from a course I was taking at the time (SOC 119N for those interested), I was mostly inspired by how often it was invoked by political commentators and lawmakers at the time.

Originating from the seminal thoughts of Derrick Bell (1995), Critical Race Theory is a legal theory positing that the composition of America’s societal institutions is such that they perpetuate systemic inequality towards communities of color. In particular, Bell (1995) and other proponents suggest that the legal system acts in furtherance of racial oppression by sustaining economic and social imbalances through the use of law. Put simply, racism isn’t necessarily the product of individual prejudice, but is deeply rooted within the legal and political makeup of (American) society itself. Subsequently, through a racially-conscious lens of American history, the theory is aimed at providing further insight, and thus rejection of, sociopolitical hierarchies and beneficiaries that sustain racism within society; similarly, it remains “critical” of policies that fail to effectively rectify systemic injustice (Bell, 1995; Richmond et al., 2024). While this is only a brief synopsis of the theory, one may draw conclusions between its propositions and contemporary socioeconomic outcomes for black Americans, be it risk of incarceration (Fornili, 2018), practices within education (Nguemeni Tiako et al., 2022), or health outcomes (Kim & Bostwick, 2020). However, while this theory is founded within legal scholarship (and thus is largely relegated to legal curriculum), as mentioned prior it was the subject of public policy and political discourse. Of note, it was often associated with concerns of child “indoctrination”. CRT was the target of policies across the country, leading to restrictions being placed on its alleged teaching within classrooms across America (e.g., TX S.B. 16; PA H.B. 1532; FL H.B. 7; Richmond et al., 2024). However, not only did such policies target broader pedagogy on race within classrooms, but many of the claims made towards CRT were outright false, if not at least miscategorized of the subject. That is, what pundits framed at the time as CRT was not in fact “Critical Race Theory”, but standard curriculum within a liberal arts education.

“Ok that’s nice and all”, one might say, “but how does this relate to education outside of curriculum, let alone social psychology?” I submit, astute observer, the relevance of broader pedagogical practices on the subject of race in association with Social Cognitive Learning Theory. To elaborate, much of the education regarding race, ethnicity, and history taught within primary and secondary education within the U.S. is not CRT, but rather operates on the practice of Culturally Responsible Teaching. Such a practice encourages “teachers to consider children’s backgrounds, family experiences, cultural values, and everyday challenges to effectively teach students” (Richmond et al., 2024, p. 268). In taking a culturally holistic approach with students, educators provide students with an environment welcoming of inquiry and application of academic material, especially to historical and ongoing social phenomena (Gay, 2013). When turning towards the premises of Social Cognitive Learning Theory (Gruman et al., 2016), the descriptive and injunctive norms become such that students believe it standard to engage in conversations on matters of diversity while doing so with expectation of an open mind, respectively.

References:

Bell, D. (1995). Who’s afraid of critical race theory? Illinois Law Review, (4), 983-910.

Fornili, K. S. (2018). Racialized mass incarceration and the war on drugs. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 29(1), 65-72.

Gay, G. (2013). Teaching to and through cultural diversity. Curriculum Inquiry, 43(1), 48-70.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Kim, S. J., & Bostwick, W. (2020). Social vulnerability and racial inequality in COVID-19 deaths in Chicago. Health Education & Behavior, 47(4), 509-513.

Legal Defense Fund. (2024). Critical Race Theory: Frequently Asked Questions. Legal Defense Fund. Retrieved from https://www.naacpldf.org/critical-race-theory-faq/

Nguemeni Tiako, M. J., Ray, V, South, E. C. (2022). Medical schools as racialized organizations: How race-neutral structures sustain racial inequality in medical education-a narrative review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 37(9), 2259-2266.

Richmond, B. S., Toosi, N. R., Wellman, J. D., & Wilkins, C. L. (2024). Ignorance of critical race theory predicts white Americans’ opposition to it. Journal of Social Issues, 80(1), 240-271.

Vukcevic Markovic, M., Nicovic, A., & Zivanovic, M. (2021). Contextual and psychological predictors of militant extremist mindset in youth. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-10.

In this weeks module, the topics of attraction and jealousy were discussed. Within the discussion, the notion of “opposites attract” was brought up, as well as the opposite stance, “birds of a feather, flock together”. In Layman’s terms, “opposites attract” refers to the concept that people who aren’t similar in their personality and/or interests are more likely to be compatible in a relationship. “Birds of a feather, flock together”, on the other hand, refers to the concept that people who are similar in their personality and/or interests are more likely to be compatible.

I found an article published in 2023 discussing whether or not opposites truly do attract. In the study, the authors conducted a meta-analysis on the topic to review previous findings on concordance rates in partners for the same or extremely similar complex traits. Upon analyzing the studies the researchers collected, political attitudes, religious attitudes, educational attainment, and some substance use traits had the highest correlations. Conversely, personality and anthropometric traits tended to reveal lower, but still positive, correlations. While it should be noted that estimates for other traits were smaller, 18 of the 22 traits were found to be statistically significant (Horwitz, T. B., Balbona, J. V., Paulich, K. N., & Keller, M. C. (2023). Evidence of correlations between human partners based on systematic reviews and meta-analyses of 22 traits and UK Biobank analysis of 133 traits. Nature human behaviour, 7(9), 1568–1583. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01672-z).

In another study, the researchers examined the scores of individual’s self-reports on the five-factors of personality. The five factors in the five-factor personality model are as follows:

• Openness to experience
• Conscientiousness
• Extroversion
• Agreeableness
• Neuroticism

After gathering the scores from the self-reports, they analyzed the similarities between friends and romantic-partners. Following this analysis, they found evidence of personality similarity in both friends and romantic-partners. This again affirms the idea that individuals are more likely to develop friendships and romantic relationships in those who are similar to them (Youyou, W., Stillwell, D., Schwartz, H. A., & Kosinski, M. (2017). Birds of a Feather Do Flock Together: Behavior-Based Personality-Assessment Method Reveals Personality Similarity Among Couples and Friends. Psychological Science, 28(3), 276-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616678187).

All these statistics exemplify the human preference for similar individuals, but that is not to say that individuals who are different can’t be attracted to one another, but rather humans tend to be attracted to others who share similarities with them. There could be many explanations for this fact. Humans might be attracted to those more similar to them as they may be less likely to engage in conflict with people who have less differences. Regardless of the reasoning behind it, studies show that humans have a preference for those similar to them, giving weight to the idea that birds of a feather, flock together.

Works Cited

• Horwitz, T. B., Balbona, J. V., Paulich, K. N., & Keller, M. C. (2023). Evidence of correlations between human partners based on systematic reviews and meta-analyses of 22 traits and UK Biobank analysis of 133 traits. Nature human behaviour, 7(9), 1568–1583. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-023-01672-z
• Youyou, W., Stillwell, D., Schwartz, H. A., & Kosinski, M. (2017). Birds of a Feather Do Flock Together: Behavior-Based Personality-Assessment Method Reveals Personality Similarity Among Couples and Friends. Psychological Science, 28(3), 276-284. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797616678187

Pretty privelage is soemthing most of us have heard of or even been accused of having. Pretty priveldge is when you recieve unfair advantages becuase of your attractieness, but is this real? is there any science to behind it? Pretty priveledge is a thing we see a lot in todays society. One specific area where I have noticed this is at the bars when attractive women already do not bring their cards becasue they know men are going to buy them drinks. This is just one example of pretty priveledge.

Pretty privledge may seem like something that may be made up or seomtheing that may just seem like coincidence like someone paying for your meal while oyu are out. But there is actual science behing this. In the textbook theysummerize a study that was done where an employer was handed two resumes. One was from someone while the other was not. They usually tend to pick hte attractive resume due to the physical attractiveness sterotype where they are percieved to be better wokers ( Hamermesh & Biddle, 1994).

This has also been shown in research looking at political aspects. They have seen that voters who know little to nothing about hte canidates vote based off of attraction ( Stockemer & Priano, 2015). This in turn can also cause the contraty that unatractive people get passed u on jobs and also may be thought to take part in criminal behavior ( e.g, Efran, 1974; Esses & Webster, 1998; Hatfiels & Spreacher, 1986).

Athough, we may see this a lot in our lifetime it actually isnt accurate. Pretty priveldge is nothing but a bias. Research has shown that more attractie people are neither better or worse workers than others who are not attractive or have average looks (Miller & Perlman, 2009). So, next time your making a decision or having to choose between two people in any situation make sure to look past physical apperance theres more to a person and their apperance. Theres science behind it to support that although pretty priveldge is athink it is not accurate when it comes to decison making.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Hamermesh, D. S., & Biddle, J. E. (1994). Beauty and the labor market. American Economic Review, 84, 1174-1195.

Stockemer, D., & Praino, R. (2015). Blinded by beauty? Physical attractiveness and candidate selection in the U.S. House of Representatives. Social Science Quarterly, 96, 430-443.

Efran, M. G. (1974). The effects of physical appearance on the judgment of guilt, interpersonal attraction, and severity of recommended punishment in a simulated jury task. Journal of Research in Personality, 8, 45-54.

Miller, R. S., & Perlman, D. (2009). Intimate relationships (Sth ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

In a time where communication is reliant on technology and social media, the quality of our human relationships should be a growing concern. While we usually focus on technical skills in personal and professional development, emotional intelligence (EI) is often disregarded. Emotional intelligence means being able to notice and change other people’s emotions and also know how to handle and use your own. Emotional intelligence can help us build better relationships, understand how others feel, and make our personal and work lives more interesting. 

Emotional intelligence is mostly based on self-/social- awareness, self-regulation, and relationship management, among several basic elements. Knowing your own strengths and weaknesses as well as having full understanding of your emotions is what makes up self-awareness. This information is essential since it lays the groundwork for our handling of challenges and stress. When someone criticizes them, a self-aware person may be able to see their first protective reply and choose a better one. This self-discipline helps you get along well with others. Emotion control reduces impulsive actions and encourages more deliberate and calm behavior in many situations. 

Understanding and being able to relate to other people are the most typical manifestations of emotional intelligence. Having empathy and being able to read social cues are the bedrocks of social awareness. In a team setting, this can mean being attuned to the needs of your colleagues or learning to read their nonverbal signs, like anxiety. As we work to increase social awareness, we may strengthen our relationships by creating a welcoming space where people feel appreciated and recognized. The capacity to communicate clearly and peacefully is at the heart of relationship management, which is all about making and keeping friends.  

Every aspect of our relationships, from personal to professional, may be improved by applying the concepts of emotional intelligence. People are more likely to work together and generate new ideas when they are encouraged to speak freely in the workplace. The group’s ability to make decisions is enhanced when team members are able to express themselves freely without fear of criticism. People are happier and more fulfilled in their professional lives as a result of this transparency, which also makes teamwork easier. 

Developing our emotional intelligence in daily life helps us to relate to friends and relatives. Relationships might improve with simple gestures of respect, awareness of emotions, and active listening. Deeper cooperation results when we face challenges with sensitivity and knowledge. Emotional intelligence enables us to resolve conflicts gracefully and foster lifetime trust that withstands adversity. Although developing your emotional intelligence is a lifetime process, the advantages—better relationships and a more fulfilling life—make it well worth the effort. Practicing emotional intelligence helps us to develop our own abilities as well as those of those around us, which sets off a series of favorable events in our local communities. 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. In SAGE Publications, Inc. eBooks. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591. 

In our modern world that seems inundated with negative headlines, adopting an optimistic outlook may seem naive to most people who have become cynical to the world around them. Yet, research in applied psychology suggests optimism is not only beneficial for personal well-being, but also enhances our resilience, improves mental health, and leads to a better overall quality of life. The case for optimism isn’t just hoping for the best. Optimism involves developing a positive mindset that can lead us through obstacles and difficulties in life. 

One of the key benefits of being optimistic is increased resilience. Psychologists have found that optimists are better at coping with life stress and are more likely to bounce back from negative life experiences. Optimists believe life always gets better and try to see the positive lessons in negative situations, while pessimists and cynics do the opposite. For example, there was a study by Sunwoo Lee, a senior research associate at Palacky University Olomouc in the Czech Republic. He examined resilience and optimism during the COVID pandemic among older European adults. The results showed that resilience and optimism are positively linked with psychological well-being in older adults and were able to cope better with the stressors of the pandemic. When we maintain optimism, we are more likely to focus on solutions and maintain an optimistic mindset, rather than giving up. 

Optimism also has tangible benefits for physical and mental health. A study by Affleck, Tennen, and Apter (2001) investigated emotional well-being in persons suffering from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. The results showed day-to-day happiness was positively linked to optimism. Optimists have lower levels of depression and anxiety as well as cardiovascular health. One explanation is that optimism decreases stress, which then lowers stress hormones such as cortisol that can hurt physical health long-term. In contrast, pessimism is associated with increased inflammation and weaker immune systems. The reason is due to the chronic stress that results from constantly being pessimistic and negative. Even better, optimism leads to healthier lifestyles, such as working out consistently and eating better as optimists have higher motivation to focus on their health to ensure a bright future.

Moreover, optimism impacts our personal relationships and social life. Optimists are more likely to have better support systems than pessimists. They view people in a positive light as opposed to treating others with skepticism. Social support is beneficial to our well-being, acting as a safeguard against stress and giving us a sense of meaning and togetherness. By expecting positive outcomes, optimists are better at handling conflicts when they arise and looking for ways to find a compromise, which leads to more satisfying relationships. 

Essentially, we all have the ability to embrace optimism. With mindfulness and positive psychology, we can disrupt negative thinking and replace it with optimism.. Everyone will face challenges and stress in life, but choosing to have an optimistic outlook gives us the ability to see negative events as opportunities for personal growth, which in turn leads to increased resilience and a happier life.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.).

Lee, S. (2023, January 15). Exploring the Role of Resilience and Optimism during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Older European Adults. Sage Journals. https;//doi.org/10.1177/01640275231152570

There are people who tend to look at the bright side, and there are people who tend to think that the world is a dark, dark place full of grief and hopelessness. There is actually a psychological explanation for this, and it is called an explanatory style. An explanatory style is defined as how an individual chooses to see a particular event that happened to them, or their life in general. There are two types of explanatory styles: optimistic (or positive) explanatory style and pessimistic (or negative) explanatory style. Let’s explore these two very simple concepts and see what we can learn, and how we can implement this in our everyday life.

An optimistic or positive explanatory style is, you guessed it, when an individual chooses to be optimistic or positive. When good things happen to people with an optimistic explanatory style, they think of internal attributions, stable attributions, and global attributions. An example would be a student getting a high grade on their test. They feel very confident about their level of intelligence and their hard work (internal), about the fact that they will continue study in order to consistently get good grades (stable), and about the fact that their intelligence and diligence will continue make them a successful person in general (global). And when bad things happen to them, they think of an external attribution, an unstable attribution, and a specific attribution. If a positive person fails a test, they think that it’s just probably because they just started a part time job and therefore did not have time to study (external) and they must have felt the pressure of getting their first job (unstable). Also, they will promise to themselves that this won’t happen again and that they will study more next time (specific).

On the other hand, a pessimistic or negative explanatory style is, as mentioned, when an individual chooses to be pessimistic or negative. If an individual with a pessimistic explanatory style have something good happen to them–for example, getting a high grade on their test, they think of an external attribution (“It’s a miracle I passed”), an unstable attribution (“I will probably fail next time”), and a specific attribution (“I only passed for this test”). And, if they have bad happen to them, or they end up getting a bad grade, they think of an internal attribution (“I don’t know how to study”), a stable attribution (“I will never be able to study well”), and a global attribution (“I will never be successful in life”).

Our explanatory styles are how we choose to operate in this world. Our explanatory styles impact all aspects of our life–whether it may be at work, school, or with our relationships. And most especially, our explanatory styles have the most impact on ourselves. Our habits, choices, physiological health, mental health, body language, etc. are all affected by how we choose to think. Every aspect of ourselves are affected by how optimistic or pessimistic we choose to be.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

The phenomenon of attraction has been interesting for people for a very long time. Every individual has his or her choices, but most of the patterns of attraction are said to be rooted in one’s biology. These tendencies are explained in terms of the evolutionary fundamental theory that attraction is centered on survival and reproduction. Those features that preserve an individual’s health, ability to reproduce, and quality of the genes become sexually desirable because they are associated with youth, fertility, and heredity (Buss, 2019).

Such as attraction to symmetry results in aesthetics, which are associated with perceived health. Research has indicated that people of all cultures prefer what are referred to as averagely attractive, or neotenous, faces with bilateral symmetry, most probably because such faces indicate the absence of developmental imperfections and possible genetic health. From the standpoint of the survival of the fittest, choosing a partner with bilateral symmetry would somehow increase the chances of healthier offspring, and so the cycle continues to favor symmetry.

Another aspect of physical appearance that the theory of the vignette model of evolutionary psychology points to is the preference for certain ratios. Studer (2003) affirmed that certain body shapes are favored by society and this favoritism is attributed to fertility. For example, women with the so-called ‘hourglass’ figure in profiles, with a ratio of the waist and hips of approximately 0.7 are considered attractive because such measurements are associated with optimal estrogen levels and high fertility (Singh, 1993). Likewise, men with a muscular and V-shaped body prime could be considered attractive as they represent strength health a high level of testosterone which in the past would be important for survival and protection mechanisms.

Thus, cultural factors do not exclude a very relevant role in the determination of physical attraction. It means that, despite the genetic foundations of the trends, total social implication as well as mass media communications can alter the definition of beauty, which is used during an assessment at times, even in terms of the counter perspective to inherent evolution trends. For example, although the evolutionary perspective postulates that people should select healthy, middle-bust, reproductive-age women, today’s Western culture tends to imagine thinness in women as desirable at times, and unhealthy (Swami, 2015). This fact provides evidence of the interaction between biology and culture and shows that how women and men attract each other is modified by culture or environment and the perception of shifting standards.

It means that by knowing the principles which underlie sexual selection we gain the ability at least to pay attention to how our instinctive reactions and cultural programming form our preferences. Understanding why people are attracted to the way others look is where evolutionary psychology comes in handy but with the understanding that attraction is not universal. It is here that the concern that attraction is biologically driven, socially constructed, or mediated by personal experience can help color a broader understanding of the concept.

References:

• Buss, D. M. (2019). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind. Routledge.
• Little, A. C., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2011). The many faces of research on face perception: Insights into social, cognitive, and evolutionary psychology. Acta Psychologica, 138(1), 63-71.
• Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 293–307.
• Swami, V. (2015). Cultural influences on body size ideals: Uncovering the realities. In L. Smolak & M. P. Levine (Eds.), The Wiley handbook of eating disorders (pp. 158–171).

When discussing romantic and sexual relationships, we would be remiss to skip some of the most interesting facets of that conversation: asexuals, or people who do not experience sexual attraction, and aromantics, people who do not experience romantic attraction (UNC-Chapel Hill LGBTQ Center, 2021).

While it may seem obvious in retrospect, these groups of people is often overlooked, even within the LGBTQ community. In fact, in the extended acronym, LGBTQIA, the ‘A’ stands for asexual (and sometimes aromantic), and not “ally”, as is commonly believed. Despite this, both terms have solid history. The term “asexual”, as it is used today, has existed and been recognized by the queer community since the early 1970s (Windsor, 2021). The term “aromantic” is newer, having only appeared in official literature (an Asexual Visibility and Education Network poll) in 2002 (Windsor, 2021).

Despite not experiencing attraction, many asexuals and aromantics do choose to engage in romantic, sexual, and other kinds of relationships with others. Ma et al. (2024) set out to research these relationships using the Investment Model of Commitment, which measures relationship commitment on the triple scales of investment, quality of alternatives, and satisfaction. What they found was that while investment and quality of alternatives were comparable to peers who experienced romantic and sexual attraction, satisfaction and commitment were so highly correlated that the researchers determined that either asexual and aromantic people did not differentiate between commitment and satisfaction, or they experienced them on a 1 to 1 scale.

So what does this mean for the study of attraction and closeness? In their study of human mate preference by biological sex, which sought to measure whether sex differences were replicable in asexual and asexual leaning people, Scheller et al. (2024) found that sexual attraction accounted for preferences in all but physical attractiveness, which aligns with physical attractiveness stereotype: physically attractive people are deemed universally more desirable, even when sexual attraction is removed (Gruman et al., 2017). In fact, Scheller et al. (2024) hypothesized that the differences in mate selection by physical attractiveness could be better explained by romantic attraction.

From there, not much literature exists on the intersection between aromanticism and attraction. However, when considering the relationship experiences of asexuals who do experience romantic attraction and asexuals who are also aromantic, Carvalho & Rodrigues (2022) found intriguing results. Aromantic asexuals reported more sex avoidant behaviors and, interestingly, more avoidant attachment styles, and valued commitment more highly. Contrastingly, asexuals who did experience romantic attraction were more likely to have previous sexual partners and be more open to romantic and sexual relationships in the future.

Overall, the results of these studies paint a tiny picture of what is available to researchers studying sexual and romantic attraction. There is a great deal of space for future research in this field, and asexual and aromantic people provide a previously untapped ‘control group’ when studying this phenomena.

Sources

Online education has become an essential part of modern learning. It has offered different benefits and challenges that have caused debates about its overall effectiveness for learning among students. Some would argue that online education offers larger flexibility for different and personalized learning and teaching strategies, while others say that it lacks engagement and social interaction that is essential for the best education. By using Bandura’s Social Cognition Theory, we can better understand the advantages and limitations of online learning and whether it affects students’ ability to learn effectively.

According to the Social Cognitive Theory, learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling, and all of which depend on the interactions with others (Bandura, 1983). In the traditional face-to-face classrooms, students can learn by observing teachers and their peers by doing things like imitating behaviors, critical thinking methods, and social skills. In an online learning environment, these interactions are very limited which can deprive students exposure to positive learning behaviors. However, online education can still support social learning through different online tools such as video calls and collaborative projects. By doing this, online educators can replicate some of the observational learning and social modeling that normal classrooms have.

One key benefit to online education is its flexibility, which allows for students to learn at their own pace. This can be especially useful for students who need extra time with material or who benefit from viewing pre-recorded lessons. Social Cognitive Theory suggests that a students self-efficacy (their belief in their ability to succeed) plays a big role in learning. In an online educational setting, students have more opportunities to build self-efficacy through a more “hands-off” learning experience since they are able to work at their own pace. By allowing students to feel more in control of their learning, online education can support this self-motivation and enhance their self-efficacy.

In conclusion, online education offers different benefits that can enhance self directed learning and self-efficacy. However, it may not provide the same level of social interaction as regular face-to-face classrooms which can be crucial for students’ engagement. In order to maximize the benefits of online education, it is crucial to incorporate social learning by providing interactive online discussions and online lectures the students can engage in. This would allow for teacher and student collaboration and discussion.

Optimists tend to be more positive minded in life and see a bright future. They work hard and persist to reach goals. Optimism helps to adjust to different spheres of life such as biomedical health, mental and emotional health, and in relationships. They may have better health habits and are better able to manage their mood which helps with mental and emotional health (Gruman, 2016). Optimism can also be beneficial in managing a cancer diagnosis.  

 A cancer diagnosis effects psychosocial well-being. There are many uncertainties and questions regarding treatment, side effects, cost, and whether they will survive. Social support and a “fighting spirit” can help to adjust to cancer. Optimism may help social support by encouraging relationships and can enhance internal self-locus of control which promotes a more positive outlook on a cancer diagnosis and surviving. One particular study, however, found a decrease in internal self-locus of control during diagnosis and treatment of cancer so this could be different with cancer patients as they feel their survival is related to clinical intervention. The study could not demonstrate a causal influence of optimism on cancer survivorship or social support as a positive affect usually draws social support (Hodges, 2012).  

Optimism has also been shown to help adjust to chronic pain in cancer patients. Over 55% of terminal cancer patients and over 66% of advanced cancer patients experience pain. Some of this pain is caused by treatment. Having an optimistic outlook has been shown to positively affect quality of life and decrease pain and use of opioids. Although more research needs to be done in this area, the application of optimism could be a standard in cancer treatment care to help ease pain, side effects of opioids, and possibly avoid drug dependence (Forte, 2022).  

Partner support can also increase optimism in those with cancer. A study showed that partner support provided high optimism and low hopelessness in patients and found good HRQL (Health Related Quality of Life) 8 months after diagnosis. However, partner optimism and hopelessness did not affect patient-perceived partner support. The study also found optimism and low hopelessness in women and partner support increased HRQL in women but low hopelessness in men showed better HRQL. This study pointed out there were gender differences in the effects of partner support which could relate to the tendency for women to seek and value social support (Gustavsson-Iilius, 2007).  

Having a positive outlook on the future can be beneficial to those battling a cancer diagnosis. Optimism can help enhance quality of life and it can help ease pain from cancer and perhaps lessen the use of opioids to relieve pain. Studies have also shown that partner support can benefit quality of life. It’s even possible that the application of optimism could become a standard in cancer treatment.  

 References 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated 

Hodges, Kayleigh & Winstanley, Sue. (November 5, 2012). Effects of optimism, social support, fighting spirit, cancer worry and internal health locus of control on positive affect in cancer survivors: a path analysis. Stress and Health. Volume 28, Issue 5. Pages 408-415. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1002/smi.2471 

 Antonio J. Forte, Gunel Guliyeva, Heidi McLeod, Abd Moain Abu Dabrh, Manisha Salinas, Francisco R. Avila, Adam Perlman, The impact of optimism on cancer-related and postsurgical cancer pain: a systematic review, Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, Volume 63, Issue 2, 2022, Pages e203-e211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2021.09.008.  

Gustavsson-lilius, M., Julkunen, J., & Hietanen, P. (2007). Quality of life in cancer patients: The role of optimism, hopelessness, and partner support. Quality of Life Research, 16(1), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-006-9101-4 

Through the eyes of the public, election seasons mark a period of increased ideological discourse and political advertising. Even for the uninterested, and thus uninitiated, the publicity of candidates, their policy stances, and controversies become the subject of prolonged attention, most evidently through the aid of mass media. As the results of the current federal general election continue towards certification, the rhetoric and talking points of both tickets remain of interest to American news channels and consumers (e.g., abortion (Mufarech, 2024), the economy (Horsley, 2024), immigration (Dewan et al., 2024; Lange, 2024)). In particular, one notable subject was that of crime, more accurately the fear of violent victimization. Throughout the campaign season, each presidential ticket, and media outlets generally, invoked tensions around crime, most often in relation to immigration (Lange, 2024). With that said. however, such a tactic has not only been common over the past few decades (Campbell & Schoenfeld, 2013), but more alarmingly, has been used to present a fictitious conceptualization of the frequency of and factors behind crime within the United States (Campbell & Schoenfeld, 2013). Put simply, current political discourse on crime, when amplified and disseminated by the media, leads the public to 1) overestimate the frequency of crime, especially violent crime, and 2) misattribute the occurrence of crime despite substantial evidence to the contrary.

Over the past thirty years, crime has seen significant declines across the United States. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (2024), between 1991 and 2021, property crime has seen a 63.7 percent decrease, with violent crime seeing a decrease of 45.6 percent. Additionally, while crime (both property and violent) saw an increase from 2021-22, it has continued to decline since. With that said, these declines are seldom acknowledged by the American populace; many Americans believe that the national occurrence of crime is has only increased over time (Gramlich, 2024). Furthermore, when focusing on the prevalence of violent crimes, many Americans tend to have a heightened fear of victimization based on a multitude of factors, including gender, race and ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, and political ideology (Onat et al., 2021). Such was the case over the current election cycle (Dewan et al., 2024), despite the underlying rarity of violent crime altogether (FBI, 2024). Following this, one may justifiably ask why this tends to be the case; while a myriad of factors certainly contribute to the wider social perception of crime, I submit that the ubiquity and access of media channels plays a central role in how the public formulates an understanding of crime as it occurs. In particular, this may be illustrated through the use of cultivation theory (Dolliver et al., 2018), and in turn may be applied to modern electoral politics through the process of agenda setting ().

Cultivation theory posits that the heavy consumption of media content, specifically televised media,  plays a central role in how people construe their social reality. That is, by consuming high amounts of television content, especially news content, individuals are likely to build their understanding of the world and social phenomena according to the content they are exposed to (Gruman et al., 2016) . Subsequently, cultivation theory suggests that, because violent content is overrepresented within televised media (Gruman et al., 2016), people will more readily attribute violence as frequent within social life. With that in mind, this very idea may be implicated within media depictions of crime. Despite the historical crime decline (FBI, 2024), studies have suggested that the sensationalization of violence and crime within televised media significantly increases the fear of crime within the population (Callanan, 2012; Dolliver et al., 2018). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that this fear of crime may be associated with increased social punitivity, and thus increased support for punitive criminal justice policies (Dolliver et al., 2018). Taking this into consideration, it may be speculated that a candidate for political office informed on such a phenomenon may use it to their advantage to influence public fear of crime and thus public support of punitive policy stances.

Such a practice, agenda setting, has not only been utilized within previous presidential administrations, but was frequently illustrated throughout this year’s election. Broadly, agenda setting is the process of media shaping public focus towards certain issues, such that the public becomes increasingly aware of given topics and thus dedicates increased attention towards these salient issues. Focusing specifically on the political realm, the “policy agenda” may then be defined as the shaping of public issue salience to meet the needs and preference of policy makers (Gruman et al., 2016). Of relevance, an emphasis on crime has been a staple in modern policy agendas, as best exemplified by the “war on crime” and “war on drugs” between the 60s and 80s, respectively (Campbell & Schoenfeld, 2013; Fornili, 2018). A key element to such policy initiatives was as a dimension of fear and resentment towards crime, and likewise a degree of support for increasing punitive practice within criminal justice. Most damningly, such practices sought retribution towards criminal “Others”, namely towards communities of color. To elaborate, the overrepresentation of certain demographic groups within crime media lead to the stereotyping of certain groups (i.e., young black males) as more “criminalistic” compared to others, perpetuating systemic disparities and inequalities (Klein & Hodges, 2022). Turning towards the recent election, I would argue that this same process was used to incentivize punitive policy measures, overwhelming towards undocumented communities. Such can be illustrated not only by the choice in rhetoric found within political reporting, primarily reporting regarding conservative office-seekers (Lange, 2024), but subsequently through the public’s distress towards immigration as a factor behind crime. This is, once again, in spite of empirical literature suggesting otherwise, primarily that (undocumented) immigrants commit crimes at far lower levels than U.S. born citizens (Light & Miller, 2018; MacDonald et al., 2013)

References:

Callanan, V. J. (2012). Media consumption, perceptions of crime risk and fear of crime: Examining race/ethnic differences. Sociological Perspectives, 55(1), 93-115.

Campbell, M. C., & Schoenfeld, H. (2013). The transformation of America’s penal order: A historicized political sociology of punishment. American Journal of Sociology, 118(5), 1375-1423.

Dewan, S., Corkery, M., & Arango, T. (2024). Crime has been a big talking point. How does it look in battleground states? The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2024/11/03/us/crime-swing-states-election.html?searchResultPosition=1

Dolliver, M. J., Kenney, J. L., Reid, L. W., & Prohaska, A. (2018). Examining the relationship between media consumption, fear of crime, and support for controversial criminal justice policies using a nationally representative sample. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 34(4), 399-420.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2024). Crime Data Explorer: Data Discovery Tool. Retrieved from https://cde.ucr.cjis.gov/LATEST/webapp/#/pages/explorer/crime/query

Fornili, K. S. (2018). Racialized mass incarceration and the war on drugs. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 29(1), 65-72.

Gramlich, J. (2024). What the data says about crime in the U.S. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/04/24/what-the-data-says-about-crime-in-the-us/

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.

Horsley, S. (2024). Here’s what Trump 2.0 means for the economy, from tariffs to mass deportations. NPR. Retrieved from https://www.npr.org/2024/11/06/nx-s1-5181327/trump-election-economy-tariffs-deportations

Klein, T. V., & Hodges, Q. (2022). An interreality study of race and homicide news coverage in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Crime, Media, Culture, 1-24. 

Lange, J. (2024). Americans see immigration as top issue for Trump to tackle, Reuters/Ipsos poll finds. Reuters, Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/americans-see-immigration-top-issue-trump-tackle-reutersipsos-poll-finds-2024-11-07/

Light, M. T., and Miller, T. (2018). Does undocumented immigration increase violent crime? Criminology, 56(2), 370-401.

MacDonald, J. M., Hipp, J. R., & Gill, C. (2013). The effects of immigrant concentration on changes in neighborhood crime rates. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29(2), 191-215.

Mufarech, A. (2024). How abortion motivated US voters. Bloomberg. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/newsletters/2024-11-06/how-abortion-motivated-votes-in-the-us-presidential-election

Onat, I., Guler, A., Kula, S., & Bastug, M. F. (2021). Fear of terrorism and fear of violent crimes in the United States: A comparative analysis. Crime and Delinquency, 69(5), 891-914.

In our textbook they describe research that was done on support for young single mothers. This research was conducted on young single mothers in Canadian communities. The research was conducted because being a young single mothers can trigger a lot of mental health issues such as depression and isolation. They used this study to create a community for support of these mothers to help alleviate these issues by letting them know that they are not alone and there are people out there that are facing the same issues as them. Not only were they all single mothers but non of them held a full time job outside of the home.

This study was conducted by providing all of the mothers with computers. All of these computers had access to a bulletin where they could all post and communicate with each other. They could participate in conversations on these computers through the bulletin with details their daily lives and struggles they were facing. During the time this was considered cutting edge technology. his is because the internet and house owned computers was not a normal at the time and not as widespread as it is today. This was a base level bulletin similar to out early outlets of social media, like My Space.

Before the intervention began they measured the mothers stress levels and then after the intervention they did this again with the post intervention interview. The study lasted about 6 months and after the intervention was over they also gave the, a scale assessing their sense of community that they felt through the social support group that was through the bulletin. Although the usage rate on average was high for all of the participants combined, individually they had very different usage rates which ranged from regularly using the system to not using it at all.

From the pre and post interventions they discovers a negative relationship between consistently using the bulletin to less parenting stress. Meaning the more they used the belting on a daily average consistently they less parenting stress they felt. they also found that the mothers that accosted the bulletin more get more a sense of community and belonging to a community. these results were fairly pleasant to the researchers because of the fact that  young mothers tend to face a lot of stress after having their children and tend to feel isolated and alienated from others around them, so providing them with less stress and a sense of community is nice to see in research. The results suggest that online social support can be an effective intervention in proceeding support and and reliving stressors of young single mothers (Dunham et al., 1998).

I think this study is important and can definitely be used if anything more in todays day and age than any other. We are provided with many different social media outlets and blogs that are easily accessible at our finger tips. People already create support groups, and I feel like one for youg single mothers or even mothers in general could be very helpful especially with things like stress and even postpartum depression. I think when people get to share their experiences and Elaine they are not the only one and they can talk about it with people similar to them it provides a sense of relief. This can also provide a safe space where there is no judgement and nothing but support and also they can probably give advice on what helped them overcome the struggles they may be facing, And all of this in the comfort of your own home and easily accessible any time of day.

Dunham, P., Hurshman, A., Litwin, E., Gusella,

J., Ellsworth, C., & Dodd, P. (1998).

Computer mediated social support: Single young mothers as a model system. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 281-290.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Community psychology focuses on enhancing well-being by addressing social and structural factors rather than just individual-level issues. This is particularly valuable for young single mothers, who often experience heightened stress and isolation. Research on single mothers has found that they can experience a range of challenges, including mental health issues, financial difficulties, and social isolation (Daryanani et al., 2016). Creating supportive environments for these mothers can significantly improve their mental health and parenting abilities. Community psychology emphasizes the importance of creating supportive networks and accessible resources to mitigate these stressors. 

Social support theory explains that emotional and informational support from others helps individuals cope with stress (Gruman et al, 2016). By providing a sense of understanding and useful information to navigate challenging situations, especially in the case of new parenthood where significant adjustments are required, connecting with others who are experiencing similar challenges provides young mothers with both practical parenting knowledge and emotional relief that can significantly help individuals manage stress (Gruman et al, 2016). Meanwhile, Social Learning Theory—proposed by Albert Bandura—suggests that people learn behaviors through observation and imitation. Within a support network, young mothers can learn effective parenting techniques by observing peers and role models who share positive strategies, fostering resilience and providing crucial emotional and practical assistance to navigate the challenges of motherhood. 

In Chapter 12 of Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems the authors discuss a study conducted by Dunham et al. that provided young single mothers with access to an online platform where they could share experiences and gain social support. Their sense of community was enhanced by this online support, which also showed how peer networks can significantly affect parenting confidence and mental health. This support is important because single mothers are more likely than cohabiting mothers (mothers who live with a spouse or partner;  to experience episodic and chronic depression, anxiety, substance abuse, stressful life events, low self-esteem, social isolation, and lack of emotional support (Daryanani et al., 2016). 

The usefulness of online networks in promoting mental health is supported by research. A 2014 study, for instance, demonstrated how virtual support groups for mental health can lessen social isolation and enable people to better handle stress and mental health issues. This aligns with findings that online support networks are crucial for young single mothers who may lack other resources. By integrating social support and social learning principles, these platforms offer accessible, low-cost support options that improve mental wellness.

In my opinion online communities can complement face-to-face ones really well, but they probably can’t completely replace them. They are a vital source of support, particularly for people who are separated by distance or social obstacles, but they frequently lack the emotional depth of face-to-face relationships. In-person community support plays a vital role in supporting mental health, particularly for vulnerable groups-like single mothers. Face-to-face interactions foster trust and mutual understanding, creating a safe environment where individuals can share their experiences openly. This form of support provides immediate, empathetic responses, which are crucial for reducing feelings of isolation. 

Social learning is also facilitated by group settings, where people can watch and emulate healthy coping mechanisms, and in the context of single mothers, this can involve observing peers who model positive parenting practices, stress management techniques, and effective ways to navigate challenges unique to single parenting. By learning from others’ experiences, single mothers can develop practical solutions and emotional resilience through these interactions. This is especially beneficial for women who might feel alone or lack extended support networks. For example, a study on community-based health support groups highlighted how peer interactions within groups lead to improved mental health by promoting self-efficacy and shared learning experiences (Lipman et al., 2010). The small qualitative study found that these mothers reported that before participating in the group, they had shared experiences of social isolation, stigma, a sense of failure, poor relationships with their children and difficulties with financial management. After the group, mothers identified improved self-esteem, support from other mothers, improved parenting skills and improved communication with their children as outcomes of group participation. This group-based support also contributes to a lasting sense of community and empowerment, as mothers feel more confident in their roles and less isolated in their struggles. 

In conclusion, community psychology offers a powerful framework for supporting young single mothers by addressing their unique challenges through both in-person and online support networks. These community-centered strategies use social learning and social support theories to improve parenting, foster resilience, and reduce isolation. The advantages of both in-person and online groups show how diverse support systems may accommodate a range of requirements, establishing a safety net that promotes mental health. By continuing to integrate accessible resources and opportunities for peer connection, community psychology can have a lasting, positive impact on both individual families and society as a whole.

References: 

Applied Social Psychology : Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Jamie A. Gruman, Frank W. Schneider, and Larry M. Coutts . SAGE Publications . 2016 3rd edition

Strange, C., Fisher, C., Howat, P., & Wood, L. (2014). Fostering supportive community connections through mothers’ groups and playgroups. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 70(12), 2835–2846. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.12435

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications.

Daryanani I, Hamilton JL, Abramson LY, Alloy LB. Single Mother Parenting and Adolescent Psychopathology. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2016 Oct;44(7):1411-23. doi: 10.1007/s10802-016-0128-x. PMID: 26767832; PMCID: PMC5226056.

Lipman, E.L., Kenny, M., Jack, S. et al. Understanding how education/support groups help lone mothers. BMC Public Health 10, 4 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-4

Lafreniere, K., Page, S., & Senn, C. (2016.). Applying Social Psychology to the Community.

All students are going to school to see other students and professors face-to-face for academic learning, but there are some students either have disabilities or students that do not like face-to-face community and decide not to go to school or instead take online courses. Or there are even factors like COVID-19 that forces every student to take courses online. According to the textbook, people who are in virtual groups are less likely to do well in school since the school will not run well. And I also had experience of taking every classes online in 2020-2021 that I have to take all classes online, and something even worse is that my time zone is different from the US time zone that I have to go to zoom and take classes at midnight until early morning, and that makes my grades very bad and not effective(Gruman et al., 2016).

For students who have disabilities that make them unable to go to school having face-by-face-community, online courses become an option for them to learn. And since everything is online, they would also get academic advisors for help online. For the academic advisors, it is their duty to advise all students, and that also includes online students. They are helping students in not only academic problems, but they also create supportive environment for learners to have a reference person in actual school and they also help students with different kinds of support. Though online courses may not be as effective as in person courses, but at least they will be learning something(Reyes et al., 2022).

For people who are taking online courses, it is also their duty to learn contents and passes the classes. So it is very important to build a good relationship between students and teachers, especially for online classes. Student motivation of taking online courses varies depends on if teachers decided to build a good relationship with students or not. There are three underlying psychological needs for online students and they are autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy represents individual’s performance for agency or personal control, competence is concerning a person’s ability to carry tasks and reach their academic goal, and relatedness is for making connections with each other in the courses. With these psychological needs included, students tend to do well and the online courses would be effective(Akram et al., 2024).

There are students who decided to take online courses, and in order to make online courses effective for them, the relationship between students and teachers are the most important factor for the online courses to be effective. Though it is also important for in person class, but online courses have more needs for the students and teachers relationship because students taking in person class can get help easily from their teachers or professors right after the class or before the class for any big or small questions while students have to send email for everything, and that makes the online community have more needs for this relationship.

Reference:
Akram, H., & Li, S. (2024). Understanding the role of teacher-student relationships in students’ online learning engagement: Mediating role of academic motivation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 131(4), 1415. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125241248709
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.
Reyes, J. I., & Meneses, J. (2022). Advising college students with dis/abilities in online learning. Distance Education, 43(4), 526-542. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2022.2121264

As humans, we all have the innate desire to belong in a group. As social creatures, we all desire to make interpersonal connections with one another. There is one field of psychology that is referred to as “community psychology.” Community psychology is defined as the study of relationships of individuals within a group. The goal of community psychologists is to try to understand how individual and group wellness within a community or a society can be enhanced. They tackle issues such as respect for diversity, member participation, collaborative strengths, social justice, etc.

Furthermore, community psychologists wondered what factors impact people’s experiences in a community. They wondered if they can change how members of a community interact and behave with their fellow members. So therefore, they identified the concept of the sense of community model. According to them, in order to have a positive sense of community, there must be four elements come into play.

The four elements that comprise of a positive sense of community are: membership, influence, integration and fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connection. Membership is identified as the idea of the boundaries of a group. These boundaries can be considered geographical or social. Influence is defined as the impact an individual has over their community, and vice versa. Is the individual considered to be an integral member of the group? Do they consider themselves an integral member of the group. Integration and fulfillment of needs is defined as how the members value themselves and others as members of the community. Do they have shared values and needs? Do the members identify with the goals of the community? And finally, shared emotional connection is self-explanatory. Do the members share a special bond with one another? Does this special bond they share with one another exclusive only to their community?

Especially with the issues prevalent today, community psychology is necessary as it addresses the real need for people to serve others. The importance of community is very real, and membership of these communities can help people feel empowered. And also, with their empowered members, communities as a whole can make good change that can benefit everyone. And also, everyone needs to understand that in all ways, we all belong in multiple communities. So therefore, everyone needs to understand that we are all interdependent. We do not only have to look out for ourselves, but also for each other.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

The progress humanity has made throughout thousands of years is evidence of an increasing number of people, as well as their increasing mobility. Paleolithic people lived in groups with simple and close connections, and those individuals only rarely traveled across long distances from their native places. Thus the emmer gave humans a solid starchy staple as agriculture developed, populations increased, and humans moved to larger, less nomadic settlements. Then this shift created conditions to have cities or civilizations for people which would allow to have many more people in one area. Group living increased and with that came a new stage of social and cultural development which is early stages while cooperation and negotiations were emerging.

Movements grew to become key with trade, migration, and exploration. Human beings traveled in search of food, pasture, and water and hence interchanged not only ideas and technologies but also genes. It made the human anxious that this dynamic exchange of things across regions and cultures makes the human more adaptable to his environment. For instance, while exiting new environments and communities new issues in the form of diseases were discovered in the population which one had to acclimatize to. This ability to jump from place to place also degenerated into an evolutionary advantage thereby enabling early man to live in the different Terra-types that characterized the earth.

Today, people are connected like never before. These days it has become possible to get across the world in just a few hours, and people are as nomadic as never before. This form of mobility has promoted cultural interchange and the flow of knowledge/technology and innovation and perspectives/ diverse talents across societies. Though, this system has its drawbacks. The ease with which infectious diseases are spreading in the contemporary world serves as a testimony to the effects of high density and movement in dense communities. For instance, modern pandemics revealed that the existing healthcare system requires the capacity to address the constantly increasing level of infectious diseases spread across countries; this claim confirms the importance of further development of the adaptable approach to addressing global health risks.

The implications of movement and numbers continue up to and including how people organize and interrelate in society. Today individuals in large cities live in larger congregations and individuals are on the move more often than their predecessors, thereby coming into contact with diverse populations than our predecessors did. Our daily life is very diverse and it pushes us to become more accepting of other people from other cultures and ethnicities and promote values that support unity among human beings. The need to familiarize ourselves with others and live alongside those in whose worldview and customs we do not see eye to eye with has shaped a cultural shift where understanding and acceptance of our values as the ability to hunt and fend for oneself was too early settlers.

The evolution of large, mobile populations has made humanity more resilient, adaptable, and culturally rich. This process continues to shape our future as we navigate the balance between connectivity and sustainability. As populations grow and we move even further across the globe and beyond, humanity’s continued adaptability will be key to facing future challenges and fostering global unity in an increasingly diverse world.

In this blog I want to discuss the stigmatizing effects of social media and methods to protect yourself from those effects. Media and social media platforms play an important role in how we receive and digest information. The objectivity of media has long been debated which has caused people to rely on even less reliable information from social media. What we see in social media can be completely incorrect, however depending on the setting and persona of the person divulging the information to us we can become susceptible to trusting the information.

Social media algorithms are designed to show you more of what you want, and one of those methods is user behavior analysis. User behavior analysis is when the algorithm collects data about how you interact with posts, accounts, and the type of content. It also tracks how long you watch the video, whether you watch until the end or scroll past it quickly. (Noreika, 2023) The issue with this is that whether an idea is true or not if it captures your attention enough it will start to affirm that idea as true. We are susceptible to being primed with information that counters truth so much so that when we encounter this truth we disregard it as false since what we have seen most often and recently contradicts that information. This ties into the lesson where research on the stigma against metal illness is not shaken when positive information about mental illness is shown after. (Gruman, 2016, p. 337)

When we wish to challenge the stigmatizing effects of social media one source says that the intervention must be multi-faceted and multi-level. (Nazanin Andalibi, 2023) One method I would propose to social media developers would be to add an AI function that allows users to quickly check the validity of the claims or information found in the content. This would allow users to easily learn factual information about what they are seeing. It would also promote a research focused mindset and a cautious distrust of viral claims. This addition would not be very difficult to add to existing platforms since most of them are already in the process of developing AI.

For my final recommendation to individuals, I would say do not trust any claim that isn’t backed by evidence. Information that is passively absorbed while doom scrolling on social media can have negative effects on you that you are not aware of. As students of psychology, we have been given the tools we need to research claims and to read and understand research done by others. It would be foolish of us to not do our due diligence and verify any information we see. Much of the things we see are riddled with negative themes since that is what gains the most viewership so we must be cautious when we allow ourselves to be exposed to information.

References

Gruman, J. A. (2016). Applied Social Psychology. Washington DC: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Nazanin Andalibi, P. C. (2023, April 23-28). Conceptualizing Algorithmic Stigmatization. Retrieved from ACM DL: https://dl.acm.org/doi/fullHtml/10.1145/3544548.3580970

Noreika, A. (2023, August 8). Explainer: What is a Social Media Algorithm? Retrieved from Technology.org: https://www.technology.org/how-and-why/what-is-social-media-algorithm/

In my ealy 20s, right around the time when my friends started leaving their homes towns in search of emplyoyment in their fields after gaining their college degrees, I felt a stark lonliness in the pit of my stomach and thought to myself “Where did my community go?” This is around the time that I started to question what made up a community and what exactly about a community gave me such an internal fulfillment. Although at the time I could not definitvely define what aspects of a community I felt missing, I knew in my gut the general feeling of what a community was. After my friends had left my home town, I was determined to find that fulfillment again.

So, what exactly makes up a community and what gives us a sense of community? McMillan and Chavis (1986) studied the concept “sense of community” and according to their model, a positive sense of community is comrpised of four elements: Membership, Influence, Integration and fulfillment of needs, and shared emotional connection. Membership, or belonging, can bring about a sense of emotional safety, and the desire to invest in one’s community. Influence refers to the power an individual has within the community and the power a community has over said individual. People who do not feel as though their presence in the community makes a difference are not likely to feel a strong sense of community. Integration and fulfillment of needs refers to the members of a community’s interdependency. Specifically, shared values, satisfying each other’s needs, and sharing goods and resources. Shared emotional connection refers to members feeling a shared bond. (McMillan and Chavis,1986)

In today’s modern society, a lot of living spaces are not set up to make these four elements so easily achievable. Instead, as a consequence, a lot of people resort to using the internet as a source of community. Unfortunately, the quality of screen to screen contact does not compare to in-person contact, and thus, people are left, generally, feeling not as fulfilled as they would be if they were sociallizing in person. These consequences can have an impact on people’s mental health. Lonliness, according to the NIH National Library of Medicine, due to impared social relationships, can lead to various psychiatric disorders such as depression, alcohol abuse, child abuse, sleep problems, personality disorders and Alzheimer’s disease. (Mushtag et al., 2014)

Knowing the consequences of inadequate social relationships, should we not want to put more emphasis on enviroments that are condusive to producing a positive sense of community? This led me to explore communes as an alternative to our everyday society that was not built to cultivated a sense of community. According to Biologist Bjorn, after completing a research project by questionnare, looking into life satisfaction, the results on tight intentional communal living was clear, and  overall, the people living in these situations reported that they were very happy with their lives.

Wow, imagine a change in one aspect of your life being able to completely flip a potentially dull and desolate life, into something that is full of internal satisfaction. Of course, with anything there are pros and cons. However, human beings have evolved within small knit communities a lot longer than our current indiustrial centered type of living.

Setting an environment up that is condusive to socializing and close knit relatioonships is not ony essential for our happiness, but also our heath. The amount of alternaitive lifestyles that are out there are as abudant as the limitations of our imaginations. Why not start to listen to our bodies, and listen to our gut, and delve deeply into human satisfaction and what it is made up of.

References

Bjorn Grinde, (2016), Happiness in Communal Life: A Scientific Project, Foundation for Intentional Living.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

Raheel Mushtag, Sheikh Shoib, Tabindah Shaah, Sahil Mushtag (2014), Relationship between Lonliness, Psychiatric Disorders and Physcial Health? A Review on Psychological Aspects of Lonliness, NIH, National Library of Medicine

In the United States and elsewhere in the Western world, the family structure considered to be the standard is the so-called nuclear family. This is two married parents with children. However, the actual percentage of children who grew up in these sorts of families is not nearly as high as we might think. In 1970 the percentage of households in the US that fit this description was 40%, but as of 2021 that percentage is now 17.8% (United States Census Bureau, n.d.). In Eastern cultures, particularly in Asia, there is less focus on the immediate family unit and more multi generational cohabitation (Oesterdiekhoff, 2024). Unlike in the West, marriage in these countries does not necessarily create a separate household.

The idea of the nuclear family derives from modern Europe. When a family member was married, they and their spouse would be considered to be a part of a new household separate from their parents. The fact that European newlyweds would need to support a separate household also meant that they needed sufficient wealth to do so, and this in turn pushes up the average age of marriage (Oesterdiekhoff, 2024). The exact reason or reasons for the emergence of this sort of family structure are not entirely clear, but one theory is that the church’s vehement opposition to arranged marriages meant potential partners had more options (Oesterdiekhoff, 2024). The church’s opposition to ancestor worship may have also meant placing less importance on caring for elder family members, which is common in Eastern cultures.

In many non-Western cultures, it is more common to see multiple generations all living under one roof. Elders will be cared for by the younger generations and the very young will be cared for by the older generations. This is compared to the common practice in the West of shipping elders off to retirement homes. In this way, this arrangement has its perks, but the system also has its downsides. This system is based on male inheritance, which means that the structure is still very patriarchal. When a father dies, the brothers will assume control of the family from within the same household (Oesterdiekhoff, 2024). This can mean that the women of the family have limited control over their choice of partner and living arrangements.

While these systems are distinct when examined separately, the rise of a global society has meant that these systems have influenced each other. With the rapid urbanization of Asia, particularly in China, the nuclear family has become a viable model for city living. While many Chinese have flocked to the cities, many also still live in rural areas and continue to operate under the extended family model. In India up to 93% of marriages are still arranged. According to an article from the BBC, only 3% of Indians were in a “love marriage” (BBC, 2021). Some Eastern countries have also started to see a rise in average age of marriage, further reflecting Western norms (Oesterdiekhoff, 2024).

The dynamics of family structure are too complex to relate in a single blog post, but if we look back through the history, psychology, economics and culture of these structures then we can start to see a pattern of necessity dictating the family dynamic. Europe, for example, is small and crowded. A higher marriage age acts as a form of population control. This limits competition for already limited resources. Industrialization has thrown both models into a period of change, and this will continue throughout history.

References

Oesterdiekhoff, G. (2024). Family patterns in the western and the eastern world. (n.d.).    https://www.researchgate.net publication/378028304_Family_Patterns_in_the_Western_and_the_Eastern_World

Bureau, U. C. (2024, October 23). Current population survey (CPS). Census.gov. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps.html

Older adults are at an increased risk of experiencing loneliness. As people retire and experience the negative health effects of aging, they lose access to many common social activities, like work functions and all kinds of physically challenging group events like sports.

In their research, Aylaz et al (2012) found that loneliness and depression score were significantly correlated, meaning that loneliness leads to worse health outcomes for elderly people. This is a huge problem, as the geriatric population is the fastest growing worldwide.

Thankfully, there is hope, as there are interventions and other ways to combat loneliness. Adams et al (2004), Aylaz et al (2012), and Hedayati (2020) all found that social relationships lower loneliness and depression scores. However, Hedayati (2020) points out that it is not enough to simply put elderly patients in retirement communities. The relationships must be quality and frequent to experience significant effect.

In fact, loneliness scores were lowest in partnered individuals, with those who had close community relationships second. Those with no social ties and those who had experienced recent loss fared the worst (Adams et al, 2004).

What this tells us is consistent with community social psychology. Older adults lack a sense of community, specifically emotional connections and integration and fulfillment of needs (Gruman et al, 2017). In order for interventions with older adults to be truly successful, it is important to encourage community building and reduce the potential for loneliness and loss of purpose wherever possible.

Sources

A sense of community as described by McMillan and Chavis includes membership, where those in a community feel they belong, influence, when a member feels they make a difference, integration and fulfillment of needs which is sharing of values, goods and resources, and shared emotional connection (Gruman, 2016) which is achieved by sharing and listening to one another. By using the approach of “New Urbanism” in the design of a neighborhood, feeling a sense of community can be reached.  

New Urbanism has been referred to as “living community” and consists of common areas with open spaces, sidewalks, and other public spaces for people to gather and help strengthen community (Talen, 2000). New Urbanism includes a few concepts in the design of a neighborhood and was developed in the 1990s in North America and has since spread to parts of Europe and Australia (Hooper, 2020).  

New Urbanist theory states there are two ways public space can strengthen community, the first is to combine residential space with public space and the second is to be cognizant of public space placement. The goal is to promote socialization and place attachment. Public space such as parks and community centers should be numerous and small and placed throughout residential areas. Streets and sidewalks should be welcoming to walking to increase social interaction (Talen, 2000).  

One concept of New Urbanism is the neo-traditionalist approach or “traditional neighborhood design” which includes a town center, shops, schools, and services that are easily reached by walking, biking or using public transportation. Narrow streets to deter extra traffic with sidewalks and large front porches on homes invite socialization.  Transit Oriented Development is similar to neo-traditional but is built around public transportation with stops within a 5–10-minute walk from any part of the neighborhood. The design of neighborhoods influenced by New Urbanism have been found to have more social and outdoor activities, strong connection to people, an increase in walking and decreased crime (Hooper, 2020).  

Social connection is the key to New Urbanism and its design has also influenced long term care for older adults. Social connections can decline as people age as they lose loved ones and can have increased difficulty being mobile. New Urbanism uses environmental design to meet the needs of the aging individual and support social interaction with friends and family which can increase independence and quality of life. The design includes easy access to shopping and services by using public transportation or a short walking distance (Hunt, 2001).  

One article I came across investigated whether a positive sense of community could influence positive mental health in Perth, Australia. It found that with the increased opportunity for social interaction in these neighborhoods, there was a positive impact on social and mental health. Also, parents with small children felt they had more opportunity to socialize and to feel connected to others. The article did mention however that they cannot conclude this positive outcome reflected directly from the design of the neighborhood. It is possible the promotion of a “community friendly town” attracted those who favor social and community-minded residents (Hooper, 2020).  

With the creation of neighborhoods using New Urbanism design, people seem to be more engaged with each other, their overall health and wellbeing can be enhanced with increased walking and social support, and they can feel a sense of belonging to a community. The design also allows convenient access to goods and services and reduced crime.  

 References  

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated 

Hooper, P., Foster, S., Knuiman, M., & Giles-Corti, B. (2020). Testing the Impact of a Planning Policy Based on New Urbanist Planning Principles on Residents’ Sense of Community and Mental Health in Perth, Western Australia. Environment and Behavior, 52(3), 305-339. https://doi-org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1177/0013916518798882 

 Talen, E. (2000). Measuring the public realm: a preliminary assessment of the link between public space and sense of community. Journal of Architectural & Planning Research, 17(4), 344–360. Measuring the public realm: a preliminary assessment of the link between pu…: EBSCOhost 

Hunt, M. E. (2001). Settings conducive to the provision of long-term care. Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 18(3), 223-233. https://www.proquest.com/psycinfo/docview/619653920/BBE1EB1B178C4C6DPQ/18?accountid=13158&sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals 

The crowding of urban centers brings into focus another notion—the bystander effect. This is a social phenomenon that explains how people are less likely to provide help in an emergency when other people are present. This post will be aimed at examining the relevance of this technique in the present-day urban environment of our cities. We shall also argue how aspects of this technique are relevant in the present day as well as shed light on how technology and community involvement can be integrated as the resolution for such issues. Studies have emphasized instances where people witnessed an emergency but were not engaged actively, therefore doing nothing to assist the victim of the event. Additionally, for example, Darley and Latané’s (1970) model of violence shows how, in the case of several witnesses, it is possible that each of them assumes that it’s someone else’s turn to intervene, causing the action to not get undertaken.  

It is evident that the bystander effect is not isolated to just emergency response; it demonstrates an understanding of the larger implications of societal engagement. Urban poverty and the decline of the neighborhoods greatly reduce the proportion of individuals willing to take risks and help out in troublesome situations. Such disconnection and fear, in a way, both keep society from assisting someone in need while instigating further social apathy. Ironically, in a technology-driven society today, while the digital world creates opportunities for interaction, its excessive use also makes people less personal. Putnam (1995, cited in Kraut et al., 1998) even mentions that the cause of lower levels of civic participation is the fact that everyone prefers to communicate over the internet, which widens the gap between virtual and physical communities.  

The effects of social disconnection and the bystander effect tend to be the underlying reason that most urban residents tend to be passive in nature. However, community psychology offers potential solutions to promote pro-social behaviors among such residents. The conviction to act among individuals in situations of great distress can be reinforced by community support programming. However, by facilitating social programs that deepen the bonds between residents in neighborhoods, we improve the ties within the community and enhance the willingness to assist each other. The social connection with the community emboldens some individuals to take action during crises rather than remaining passive due to the bystander effect.  

To conclude, the bystander effect is not only an important factor within urban settings, but it is also a motivation for the strengthening of communities. It is important to remember, however, that diffusion of responsibility can act as a barrier to accountability or an active stance, especially in the context of today’s society. Traditions emphasizing the values of family, friendship, and interaction should be fostered in a sense to instill preparedness in individuals, so that involvement in responsive interventions becomes not only an obligation but also a duty. This piece comes to one conclusion: trying to change situations or events without knowing how most people in the city genuinely act will not help fight the negative impacts of bystanderism. 

Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1970). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4), 377-383.10.1037/h0025589.

Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53(9), 1017-1031.10.1037//0003-066x.53.9.1017.

Putnam, R. D. (1995). Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. J. P.Toubin. https://historyofsocialwork.org/1995_Putnam/1995,%20Putnam,%20bowling%20alone.pdf.     

In this week’s module we discussed stereotyping, discrimination, and prejudice, as well as their impacts. We observed Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment and saw how observational learning can influence behavior, and in Jane Elliott’s Blue-eyes/Brown-eyes experiment from A Class Divided, we saw the impacts that discrimination can have.

In the Bobo doll experiment, we saw adults present children with a Bobo doll, which is an inflatable clown doll that will rebalance itself upright when struck, and then displaying aggressive behavior towards the doll in front of the children. When the children were left to play with doll, it was observed that they then mimicked that violent behavior on the doll, carrying out those same aggressive behaviors, and in some cases even taking it further, with some kids going as far as holding the doll down and striking it with an object. This experiment showed us the effects that observational learning and modeling can have, especially on kids (1).

In her experiment, we saw how quickly the children turned on each other when told that one group was better than the other, with children turning on friends without much trouble at all. Even more than that, we saw how it can impact both sides, with the blue-eyed children who were told they were better than brown-eyed children receiving better grades than expected, and brown-eyed children who were told they were inferior to blue-eyed children doing receiving worse grades than expected. Both of these observations held true even when the children were told on a different day that the opposite was true, with the brown-eyed children being told they were superior to blue-eyed children, and displaying the same behavior as the blue-eyed children did previously (2).

In one article I found, researcher discussed the meeting of these two concepts, in what psychologists call, implicit bias. Something being explicit would mean that position of the individual has been expressed outwardly with the knowledge of the individual, for example, an example of an explicit attitude would be saying “I’m voting for Kamala, I hate Trump and what he stands for”, as in that case, an individual clearly expressed their opinion towards a topic. Something being implicit means that an individual’s actions are expressing their support or disdain towards something without the individual knowing they are doing so, for example, an individual rates candidates with traditionally male names higher than traditionally female names, despite the fact the individual supports women’s rights and are outspoken about discriminatory trends such as gender-based wage gaps. As stated in the article, Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations, authored by Greenwald and Krieger and published in 2006, Implicit biases are “discriminatory biases based on implicit attitudes or implicit stereotypes” (3). Implicit biases are both interesting and troubling, because the behavior that stems from them is different than the expressed beliefs and feelings of the individual. For example, Black Americans’ implicit attitude test scores showed that they had almost complete racial neutrality, which differed from the in-group favoritism seen in the expressed beliefs. This was hypothesized to be due to the pervasiveness of pro-European-American attitudes in American culture. In one study, white interviewers interviewed white applicants and Black applicants, and it was found that white interviewers smiled and spoke to white interviewees more than black interviewees. As for altering these implicit biases, research showed that making personal connections with members of the outgroup can improve implicit attitudes (3). In short, our culture and our media influence us in unconscious ways, creating implicit biases that can actually harm groups of people, without the express knowledge of the individual.

Works Cited:

1. Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models” reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of personality and social psychology, 1(6), 589.
2. produced and directed by William Peters ; correspondent, Charlie Cobb ; written by William Peters, Charlie Cobb ; a production of Yale University Films for Frontline ; produced for the Documentary Consortium by WGBH Boston. (1986). A class divided. Washington, DC :PBS Video [distributor]
3. Greenwald, A. G., & Krieger, L. H. (2006). Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations. California Law Review, 94(4), 945–967. https://doi.org/10.2307/20439056

One of the first concepts taught to children through their education is the importance of completing an assignment or task at the expected time. However, many individuals have continued to struggle with this concept even throughout their adulthood. This concept is known as procrastination. Procrastination, according to the authors of our textbook Gruman et al., (2016), is the act of postponing the completion of a task or assignment sometimes intentionally, sometimes not depending on different circumstances. As small of an act as it sounds procrastinating on a regular basis is a recipe for disaster, likely adding more stress to one’s plate. The main goal of this blog post is to find the connections between a student’s level of procrastination and thier ability to perform well academically. Overall, further emphasizing the negative impact procrastination has on those who do it. 

Personally, I’ve witnessed many claim that procrastinating helps them produce work they would be more proud of compared to work they complete on time. In a recent study by Le et al., (2024) after collecting data from 566 high school students, the authors found that those who reported procrastinating on a more consistent level were more likely to perform worse academically than those who turned their assignments in on time (Le et al., 2024, p. 9). Building off of thier point, I think its fairly obvious that those who don’t follow instructions will fall behind in any area of life. If schools were able to implement some form of program that would allow children with a harder time adapting to new responsibilities, I believe we would see less adults dealing with problems related to procrastination. 

When developing an intervention or program that can potentially aid children who have a hard time meeting deadlines it’s important to reference research on the subject that might be of help. For example, an article from Fuke et al., (2023) focuses on procrastination amongst young children and what factors or characteristics they have that could be used as future predictors. The authors found that children with lower levels of episodic foresight, the ability to think about things that may occur in the future, were more likely to procrastinate in an academic setting (Fuke et al., 2023, p. 590). By focusing on the future and how our actions can change it both positively and negatively, I believe schools will lower the amount of procrastination they see in thier student body. 

In conclusion, procrastination is a common problem that causes many people unnecessary stress, especially students. As a college student myself I’ve 100% had my own experience with procrastination and learning how negatively it can impact how I perform academically, especially as I get closer to graduating. Although there’s an emphasis on timeliness and the importance of doing what you’re told in school I can’t help but think that all students would benefit from additional guidance on how to keep their future in mind, especially at a young age. Going forward I hope to see more research on other possible strategies that could be utilized to help students with thier ability to stop procrastinating. 

References: 

Fuke, T. S. S., Kamber, E., Alunni, M., & Mahy, C. E. V. (2023). The emergence of procrastination in early childhood: Relations with executive control and future-oriented cognition. Developmental Psychology, 59(3), 579–593. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001502 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated. 

Le, A. T., Ober, T. M., & Cheng, Y. (2024). Validation of a procrastination scale: A multimethod–multimodal approach. Translational Issues in Psychological Science. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000411 

Generation-Z is a time period loosely defined as starting during the later half of the 1990s, around 1996 or 1997, and ending in the early 2010s, around 2012. Individuals who came into the world during this time period were born into a unique situation. The earlier members of the generation were born at the turn of the century, with the Y2K scare and 9/11 occurring that time, while the later half were born into a period of rapid technological development. To put the technological development during this period into perspective, at the beginning of this time period, in December of 1997, the Nokia 6110 phone was introduced (1), while towards the end of this period, in 2009, 4G was being introduced (2). People born the same year as the Nokia 6110’s introduction (1), share a generation with those who were born the year the first iPod was released in 2001 (3), those who were born the same year the first iPhone was announced in 2007 (4), and those who were born the same year as 4G’s introduction in 2009 (2). Suffice to say, it’s not hard to argue that people born in this generation grew up during a period of technological development, on a scale unlike anything seen before.

While advancements in technology has brought forth many improvements in communication, safety, information-transmission, entertainment and accessibility, there is a downside; children had access to this technology before any downsides were fully established. Children born during this generation were the first to grow up with smart phones and social media, growing alongside technology, as well as studies on the negative impacts it can have. Nowadays, researchers have established negative effects that may result from social media and cellphone use including anxiety that results an individual’s separation from their phone (5); negative impacts on self-view and social relationships via cyberbullying and social comparison (6); the normalization of self-harm and suicide (6); a correlation between high amounts of cell phone usage and eye strain, neck pain, back pain, weight gain, depression, loneliness, and mood disorders (7); and a negative impact on sleep (8). That’s not even mentioning the privacy risks or addictive aspect to internet usage, with studies showing a significant positive correlation between internet addiction test scores and plasma dopamine levels (9); dopamine being a neurotransmitter associated with feelings of pleasure and satisfaction, playing a vital part in the reward system in our brains. Addictive drugs are also known to cause increases in dopamine release, providing further proof of the addictive properties the internet is said to have (9).

During and following the COVID-19 pandemic that took over the world in 2019, researchers sought to examine the impacts the virus had on physical and neurological functioning, but also how the lockdown that took place during the pandemic affected learning, socialization, and technology use. It is well-known that the pandemic had negative impacts on mental health, with feelings of isolation, anxiety and despair being common in those who were forced to lockdown, all-of-which could’ve been exacerbated by the requirement of technology for work, schooling, and socialization. One trend that became very prominent at this time is referred to as “doomscrolling”, which is essentially the act of compulsively scrolling through social media and newsfeeds relating to bad news. This trend was so popular, it was named one of Oxford English Dictionary’s words of the year in 2020 (10). With the negative impacts being clearly researched and established, many researchers have attempted to discover ways to manage the negative impacts of internet use and social media. One study I found discusses a concept for managing the negative impacts that technology use can have; digital wellbeing.

In the article, Privacy Literacy: From Doomscrolling to Digital Wellness, authored by Chisholm & Hartman-Caverly and published in 2022, digital wellbeing is defined as “a subjective individual experience of optimal balance between the benefits and drawbacks obtained from mobile connectivity” (10). Essentially, digital wellbeing is the balance between the positive and negative impacts of internet use. In order to discover this “sweet spot”, individuals need to display controlled pleasure in relation to their internet use, as well as having functional support, while avoiding a loss of control and functional impairment as related to their cell phone use. To discover this balance, researchers suggest individuals look at the issue from a dynamic systems approach, which is essentially viewing a problem through the various systems and factor that play into it. This includes the interaction of several factors, including person-specific, device-specific, and context-specific factors. Person-specific factors include personality traits, such as impulsivity and mood, device-specific factors involve system design choices and notification system nudges, both of which influence user behavior, usage, and attitudes, and finally, context-specific factors include the impact usage has on social roles, such as how connectivity forces individuals to always balance their time using their phones with the time they spend nurturing relationships (10). The article didn’t provide much on intervention and its efficacy, but was more of a set-up for future interventions. It appears that researchers are still researching how to mitigate negative effects in a generalizable way. Much of the research surrounding social media and technology use focuses on limiting technology, but much research still needs to be done on how mitigate the negative impacts of social media and technology use, something that is vital, given technology and social media is unavoidable in today’s society. It isn’t possible to just turn off or stop the usage of technology anymore, and research needs to reflect that, though it doesn’t come quickly.

Sources:

1. Nokia – 6110. Nokia – 6110 | Mobile Phone Museum. https://www.mobilephonemuseum.com/phone-detail/nokia-6110 
2. Paavola, A. (2022, December 19). Smartphone History: A Complete Timeline. Textline. https://www.textline.com/blog/smartphone-history#:~:text=It’s%20hard%20to%20think%20of,worth%20up%20to%20$152%20billion 
3. The Music Lives On. Apple Newsroom. (2022, May 10). https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2022/05/the-music-lives-on/ 
4. Apple reinvents the phone with iPhone. Apple Newsroom. (2007, January 9). https://www.apple.com/newsroom/2007/01/09Apple-Reinvents-the-Phone-with-iPhone/ 
5. Gui, D. Y., Dai, Y., Zheng, Z., & Liu, S. (2023). Losing control without your smartphone: Anxiety affects the dynamic choice process of impulsive decision-making and purchase. Frontiers in neuroscience, 17, 998017. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2023.998017
6. Abi-Jaoude, E., Naylor, K. T., & Pignatiello, A. (2020). Smartphones, social media use and youth mental health. CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 192(6), E136–E141. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.190434 
7. Daniyal, M., Javaid, S. F., Hassan, A., & Khan, M. A. B. (2022). The Relationship between Cellphone Usage on the Physical and Mental Wellbeing of University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(15), 9352. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159352 
8. Rafique, N., Al-Asoom, L. I., Alsunni, A. A., Saudagar, F. N., Almulhim, L., & Alkaltham, G. (2020). Effects of Mobile Use on Subjective Sleep Quality. Nature and science of sleep, 12, 357–364. https://doi.org/10.2147/NSS.S253375
9. Liu, M., & Luo, J. (2015). Relationship between peripheral blood dopamine level and internet addiction disorder in adolescents: a pilot study. International journal of clinical and experimental medicine, 8(6), 9943–9948.
10. Chisholm, A., & Hartman-Caverly, S. (2022). Privacy Literacy: From Doomscrolling to Digital Wellness. Portal : Libraries and the Academy, 22(1), 53-79. https://ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/privacy-literacy-doomscrolling-digital-wellness/docview/2769365460/se-2 

Being a part of a community whether it is online, or face-to-face is very important for us to grow as a person. Some may say face-to-face is a better form of communication while others think online is easier and works better for them. It is hard to really answer which way is better because it is based upon your own experiences and likes.
Now, I will say with face-to-face interactions, you get more of a sense of feel or emotion for the other person and/or people you are speaking to. This also allows us to show more of our own characteristics and be able to reach the party you want to. In the book it states, “Sense of community which refers to the degree to which community members feel a sense of belonging, etc.” This quote helps to relate to how face-to-face gives that sense of belonging in the community.
Online communities are harder to get the sense of self in the community. Being online could relate to just hearing your voice instead of seeing each other. It does not give a sense for the other person you are speaking to. If we focus on only using online interactions it could cause effects on actual interactions in the real world.
Both community styles of online and face-to-face have good and bad effects. Some people might have social anxiety and cannot speak to others unless its through a phone. On the other hand, if we only use online tools to speak to others in a community, we might often have a sense of not knowing how to interact face-to-face when we have to.
Gruman, J.A., Schneider, F.W., & Coutts, L.A. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Sage Publications.

It is hard to admit to ourselves that we should have studied harder or we should not have partied the night before an exam. If you tend to have an excuse readily available for a grade that was lower than you thought then you have participated in self-handicapping. Another concept that is correlated with self-handicapping strategies is perfectionism. This is when someone is overly critical of their behavior and harps on their mistakes. Researcher Karner-Huţuleac (2014), examines the correlation between self-handicapping and perfectionism.

While self-handicapping and perfectionism may appear to be opposite by definition they both share something in common and that is the fear of failure. Self-handicapping strategies are when individuals make up excuses for their failures on external factors so that they do not have to admit to themselves that they are the reason for their failure. Perfectionism is when individuals are so scared to fail that they are overly critical of themselves and set unrealistic expectations for themselves. They tie their self-worth to their accomplishments and tend to have poor self-esteem. The results of the study show that “the use of self-handicapping strategies was found to be positively related to perfectionism” (Karner-Huţuleac, 2020). This means that students who are perfectionists can implement self-handicapping strategies such as procrastinating making excuses, failing to study, etc. due to their feelings of anxiety or depression when they fail to meet their expectations. This can be a harmful and vicious cycle which is why they are positively correlated. Self-handicapping and perfectionism have also been negatively correlated with academic achievement. They are afraid of failure but do not wish to accomplish things academically. Since they are not taking accountability for their actions or blaming their failure on external sources they will not change their self-destructive ways.

Some may view perfectionism as a good thing, but in reality, it puts a lot of mental strain on them and they can develop bad habits because of it. One way to combat perfectionism and self-handicapping strategies is by setting realistic goals and expectations for yourself. Instead of finding excuses for your poor behavior try to take responsibility and think about your actions. If you want to go out with your friends, but you know you need to study, try to set up a study schedule. You could study a little bit every day so that when your friends want to hang out you will not be worried about studying.

References

Karner-Huţuleac A., (2014). Perfectionism and self-handicapping in adult education.
Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 142. 434-438.

In today’s learning environment, students’ success is determined by much more than intelligence or study habits alone. The field of social psychology reveals that belief and motivation are a potent predictor of students’ academic achievement. Concepts like academic self-concept—a student’s belief in their academic abilities—and the theory of planned behavior, which outlines how attitudes and perceived control drive intentions, provide a deeper understanding of student motivation. By creating and supporting positive academic self-beliefs, educators can help students set and achieve higher goals, leading to better outcomes.

Academic self-concept is crucial to student success. Students who perceive themselves as capable tend to be more engaged and set challenging goals, which will help to validate their self-esteem through achievements (Gruman et al, 2016). Conversely, students who view themselves as “not good” at certain subjects often avoid challenging tasks, fearing failure – even discussing and confronting a teacher creates fear for most. This negative self-perception can limit their growth, trapping them in a cycle of low confidence and performance. Educators play a critical role by celebrating small successes and encouraging effort, helping students gradually develop a more positive academic self-image.

Mass media also heavily influences students’ views about education and self-worth. Media portrayals of school, academic success, and peer achievements—especially through social media—can create unrealistic standards. According to cultivation theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976), prolonged media exposure can shape individuals’ perceptions of reality. For students, this may mean comparing themselves to curated images of academic “perfection” online, which can alter their motivation and self-esteem. Educators can counteract these effects by promoting critical thinking about media and encouraging students to set personal goals rather than relying on external comparisons.

Adding to these dynamics, artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping education in unprecedented ways. AI-powered learning tools can provide personalized feedback, adapting lessons to meet each student’s strengths and needs. AI can help students study effectively, this can ensure that students focus on the topics they need the most help with, maximizing their learning efficiency. This personalized approach can have a positive influence on the academic self-concept of a student because the students will be able to experience success without social pressures. While AI has the potential to transform the classroom, its ethical implications—such as data privacy and equal access—require careful consideration to ensure that technology enhances rather than replaces human connection in education.

• Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.
• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179-211.

Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26(2), 172-199.

Mass media significantly influences adolescents. With the rise of social media, young minds are constantly being exposed to idealized images of beauty and unrealistic body images which are at unattainable standards. The glorification of these unrealistic bodies in the media can lead to major body dissatisfaction in adolescents developing brain. It is a major risk factor for eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia. Naomi Wolf argues that our culture disempowers women by holding them prisoner to an unattainable beauty ideal (Wolf, 1990).

George Gerber’s Cultivation Theory explains this phenomenon by stating that long-term exposure to media content shapes individuals’ perceptions of reality. For adolescents, this frequent exposure to images of these thin, digitally altered models can create a distorted view of societal beauty norms. This would lead to feelings of unworthiness and low self-esteem when their bodies do not conform to these media’s standards.

The consequences of this mindset can be very severe, resulting in extreme dieting, excessive exercising, and even more extreme measures like purging or using laxatives. When adolescents use these extreme measures to achieve this ideal body image, it can be detrimental to their developing bodies and mental health. These dieting practices can also perpetuate feelings of failure and inadequacy which would lead to a deeper spiral into eating disorders.

The effects of media’s glorified body images can also lead to lead to other issues beyond one’s perception of their own body. It can also lead to increased bullying, social isolation, and mental health issues among adolescents. If someone doesn’t match this ideal body, they may be bullied by others or self-isolate, which can be detrimental to their mental health. It may also cause them to go through extreme measures to fit the societal standards, which can easily lead to an eating disorder such as anorexia or bulimia.

Addressing the impact of mass media on eating disorders is essential to begin mitigating these problems. By prioritizing education and inclusivity, we can help adolescents develop a more positive self-image and mitigate the harmful effects mass media can have on their body image. Promoting diverse representations of body types on the media can help challenge these harmful narratives. Also, educating adolescents to recognize unrealistic portrayals of beauty can help them understand they do not need to look a certain way and that they can be comfortable with themselves.

Spettigue, W. and Henderson, K.A. (2004) Eating disorders and the role of the Media, The Canadian child and adolescent psychiatry review,13(1):16–19 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated

Aggression in schools show up in many forms, It can be hitting, kicking, name calling or the more extremes like bullying, school shootings, self harm. A lot of these types of aggression stem from specifically bullying, Bullying can be direct and indirect. Indirect is more so cyber bullying which is any form of bullying online. Because of the advances In technology that we get every year bullying has been able to take place in many different forms. Rather than bullying being face to face and a matter of strong or week and popular a non popular. This gives a platform for anyone to bully.

In the textbook they explain why kids may bully and bring aggression to school and how it effects the other student, teachers, and the school environment in general. Kids tend to bully for a couple of reasons but one of the main reasons is what they learn from home. When a child is disciplined at home for something that may be normal in other homes they tend to reflect what they learn at home in school. You also as a child learn social norms and what it normal etiquette and what isn’t based off of what goes on at home as well so when children come to school and see other kids acting different or being different they do not take it quite easy. Kids in school also may to feel say due to aggression of others due to the nature of the school changing. School is known to be a safe place and to know that things like this occur in school make other children feel weary of there surroundings.

Social psychology can be used to explain the phenomena of bullying due to the fact that kids can learn from each other and what is around them. This ties straight to Bandura’s social cognitive learning theory (Bandura, 1983). Which basically says that children can learn from observing others behaviors and adopting them. Especially in new environments that they are unfamiliar with children may for to what they see around them abusing them to partake in aggression, or bullying without even noticing and thinking the stay be normal for this area that they are in. Children may also follow others lead in bullying to gain a likeness from others.

There was a study to reduce bullying done in Finland. This was called the Kiva Anti Bullying Program ( Salmivalli & Poskiparta, 2012).  This study consisted of observerving the kids and treating bullying different. They flipped the script in this study and instead of the bully getting rewarded or getting rewarded by friendship for bullying they encouraged the children to support the bullied kids. They also created programs for the kids that promoted anti bullying and rewarded the kids for being kind to each other. this tidy also proved to reduce cyber bullying as well amongst the children in the schools that had the program rather than the ones that were in the control schools.

https://www.kivaprogram.net/

Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2005). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Sage Publications, Inc.

The fundamental attribution error is the psychological phenomena that occurs when an individuals falsely believe that personality characteristics impact behavior more than situational factors. To simply explain, the fundamental attribution error is “judging the book by its cover.” A person affected by this error of attribution assumes that what they see is what is true. For example, an individual affected by the fundamental attribution error immediately assumes that a homeless person is lazy or “did not work hard enough,” not being aware of the homeless person’s actual situation and past events.

Individualism is a societal belief system that promotes individuality. In an individualistic society, people are seen as independent. People must be self-reliant. People are valued for their achievements, and blamed for their shortcomings. Individuals in an individualistic society are considered to be either winners or losers. Many countries in the West such as the United States and Canada are examples of individualistic societies.

Collectivism is a social belief system that promotes the welfare of the group. People place their value on their group identity. The group or community must unite as a whole. An individual’s achievements are also considered their group’s achievements, and an individual’s failures are also considered their group’s failures. Many countries in the East such as China and India are considered to be collectivistic cultures.

A study in 1984 was conducted by Smith and Whitehead. They gathered participants from both the United States and India. They were asked to rate potential reasons for someone’s promotion or demotion. This is to observe the potential, significant cultural variations in the phenomenon of the attribution of error. As expected, the participants were affected by their varying cultural values. The American participants were more likely to describe personal characteristics as dependent on someone’s promotion or demotion (e.g. skillset), while the Indian participants were more likely to describe external, circumstantial factors (e.g. how difficult the job was, the corruption of the company).

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

Discrimination and stereotyping in educational settings remain significant issues that impact students’ academic and personal growth. These biases manifest in various ways, from teachers’ unconscious prejudices to structural inequalities embedded in curricula and policies. For instance, students from marginalized backgrounds may encounter lower expectations, which can stifle their academic ambition and perpetuate cycles of underachievement. Stereotyping based on race, gender, socio-economic background, or ability also influences how teachers and administrators interact with students, often leading to inequitable opportunities and resources.

Stereotypes also affect peer interactions, where students may hold biased assumptions about their classmates’ abilities or behaviors. This can create an unwelcoming environment, isolating certain groups and fostering discrimination within the student body. When students are pigeonholed into rigid categories, they’re discouraged from exploring their full potential. The consequences extend beyond academics, impacting students’ confidence, self-image, and mental health, potentially resulting in long-term impacts on their motivation and aspirations.

Curriculum choices and teaching practices are critical in reinforcing or challenging stereotypes. A curriculum that lacks diversity, for instance, can perpetuate narrow perspectives, leaving students with limited exposure to diverse cultures, histories, and viewpoints. Conversely, incorporating diverse perspectives can help counter stereotypes, promoting inclusivity and empathy among students. Teachers trained in cultural competency can also help dismantle stereotypes by creating equitable learning environments where all students feel valued and understood.

Addressing discrimination in education requires comprehensive strategies. Schools should implement regular diversity and inclusion training for teachers and workshops that allow students to engage in meaningful discussions about biases and prejudice. Enforcing policies that support anti-discrimination measures and holding educators accountable are essential steps. Additionally, schools can involve parents and the community to create a supportive ecosystem that encourages diversity, empathy, and respect for differences.

By actively challenging discrimination and stereotypes, educational institutions can create a safe, inclusive environment that respects every student’s individuality. This empowers students from all backgrounds to thrive academically and socially, setting the foundation for a more equitable society.

Almost every student today has a cell phone. Generally, the message we hear from parents and teachers is that kids are always on them! And it’s partially true: according to a study by Radesky et. al. (2023), children in middle and high school spend an average of 5 of their waking hours on their cell phones every day.

In the classroom, this is debatable, with students spending an average of around 43 minutes of screen time in school, with a spread of a few minutes to six and a half hours (Radesky et. al. 2023). Either way, schools view cell phones as a major problem. There has been a recent uptick in schools banning cell phones, and the Pew Research Center found in their survey that around 82% schools have a no-phones-in-the-classroom policy, which can be enforced to varying degrees by teachers (Hatfield, 2024).

The dilemma then comes in with the use of cell phones. On one hand, they offer distraction and ample opportunity for students to self handicap (Gruman et. al. 2017) by paying attention to the phone instead of the lesson and to be on the device instead of doing schoolwork. On the other hand, phones can be useful for playing review games like Kahoot as a class and allow students to look things up quickly.

Some schools have attempted to bridge this gap by providing personal laptops to students. Unfortunately, the same issues arise, as students find things to do on the devices that are not work, regardless of the parental controls in place.

Regardless, students can be both harmed and helped by devices, and they often exacerbate existing problems with academic self efficacy (Gruman et. al. 2017). As technology advances, education will need to find ways to adapt or combat it to suit its needs.

Sources

Gruman, J.A., Schneider, F.W., & Coutts, L.A. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hatfield, J. (2024). 72% of U.S. high school teachers say cellphone distraction is a major problem in the classroom. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2024/06/12/72-percent-of-us-high-school-teachers-say-cellphone-distraction-is-a-major-problem-in-the-classroom/

Radesky, J., Weeks, H.M., Schaller, A., Robb, M., Mann, S., and Lenhart, A. (2023). Constant Companion: A Week in the Life of a Young Person’s
Smartphone Use. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense.

I am sure many of us have had conversations with people who talk about how pointless school is and how things they learned in high school will never be applied to their life. This feeling is not uncommon in many people, even in some who are in college but they stay in school because they believe that it is an ends to a means, that means being a higher income. This external motivator of a reward is not the most conducive when it comes to education. In this blog I want to talk about fostering intrinsic motivation in education.

Intrinsic motivation is being motivated to do something for the sake of doing it and not for an external reward. The text refers to research on problem-based learning (PBL) where students are given more responsibility when it comes to completing a task. The results of the research showed that students perceived their subject as more interesting and important. This result makes me wonder if we could enhance not only the learning experience but also their clarity on future aspirations through this style of learning. Education can become tiresome when it feels unrelated to your future goals, but if we create a system where we feel a deeper connection to our coursework and its connection to our future, I believe we can improve people’s lives and careers.

One source outlines 4 motivational areas that if improved can boost intrinsic motivation in students. Those four areas are autonomy, competence, relatedness, and relevance. (Ferlazzo, 2023) Autonomy is rooted in the feeling of control over ones actions and having control over how you complete your work boosts the intrinsic motivation associated with it. Competence makes you feel capable of doing the task and this is where the instructor plays a crucial role in providing students with the knowledge and methods, they need to know in order to achieve their tasks. Relatedness is the feeling of connection to their peers, and this can be boosted via small group discussions and group projects. Relevance is the idea of how the current task helps the student now and in the future. Relevance is the most difficult in general education because some of the standard classes that everyone takes are difficult to relate to one’s own goals, but in higher education there could be more done to reduce some of the redundant courses that leave students feeling bored and uninterested.

Intrinsic motivation is a way of creating a deeper passion for learning in all students. Everyone must go through education at some point in their life which makes it incredibly important that we dedicate time and resources to making it as valuable as possible for each individual. Whether that be reforming high school education in a way that helps students prepare for their careers better or simply making the learning experience in classes more enjoyable in general. We have a responsibility to future generations to implement research in a way that fosters higher education quality.

References

Ferlazzo, L. (2023, March 30). How to Promote the Intrinsic Desire to Learn. Retrieved from edutopia: https://www.edutopia.org/article/promote-intrinsic-desire-to-learn

Gruman, J. A. (2016). Applied Social Psychology. Washington DC: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Observational learning is a critical concept in the field of psychology and it is particularly important in the sub-field of behavior science. Much of the foundation of for the subject of observational learning was set in place by Albert Bandura in his 1986 “Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory” (Bandura, 1986). In it, he explores a social cognitive perspective of learning not just for children, but for adults as well. This research challenged the notion that behavior could be explained by respondent (classical conditioning) and operant (punishment and reward) conditioning (Fryling et al, 2011). This implies a somewhat simplified model of learning through external stimuli alone.

Observational learning posits that we model behavior, rather than imitating it. We can expand on what it is that we observe to create our own behaviors without needing to attempt the exact behavior ourselves. It was also found that children can take lessons learned incidentally from one observation and apply that learning to an unrelated task (Fryling et al, 2011). Bandura’s work was expanded upon in a later paper titled “Understanding Observational Learning: An Interbehavioral Approach” (Fryling et al, 2011). This interbehavioral appraoch focuses more on the relationship between the learner and their environment rather than the internal processes of learning that Bandura had focused on in his research.

These studies also found that not only are classical and operant conditioning not solely responsible for behavioral learning, but in some cases they may be detrimental for learning. This appears to be particularly true for children. It was found that when children were punished for a certain action, they would avoid repeating that action (Fryling et al, 2011). Nothing was really learned. This suggests that children may learn better in an environment that is not applying any sort of negative pressure on them.

Bandura also suggests that children may not necessarily require any coercing at all, whether it’s punishment or reinforcement. They may pick up behaviors just by observing of their own volition. One component of this, he notes, is motivation (Bandura, 1986). A child must be somewhat motivated to reproduce the behavior. However, they may also pick up the behavior passively. The example given in the Fryling paper is that of a student noticing that one of his classmates gets praise from the teacher for getting a vocab flashcard correct, so next time that flashcard comes up he remembers the answer (Fryling et al, 2011).

The research done by Bandura and expanded on by Fryling introduces a level of nuance to the subject of behavioral learning that was perhaps missing from the classical models. This approach may have positive education implications. If teachers understand how their students are learning then they can better tailor the instruction to how children actually retain things. Education, being such an old and universal institution, may be slow to change but if the research is convincing enough then it is hard to argue against trying a new approach.

References

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.  Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Fryling, M. J., Johnston, C., & Hayes, L. J. (2011). Understanding observational learning: An interbehavioral approach. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior.

Modern education targets students to learn things at a young age and then allowing them to use it in their everyday life. It plays a huge role on young kids because once they learn something it is always going to stick with them. If you teach a kid that bullying people is a good thing because you are supposed to think you are better than others, then they are always going to bully people and see no wrong in doing so.
Using techniques such as experimental learning or a systematic approach is very serious. Once something is learned and practiced at a young age it will be very hard for someone to change their way of thinking or doing. It is like being taught that getting bad grades makes you a criminal or puts you in jail. If that is the case then people/students are going to want to always get good grades. Which could seem as a good thing at first. But, in the long run it could ruin someone’s mental and have them worry so much about getting even a little bit below a good grade.
Modern education is used all around. In a website I have read about modern education, it describes disadvantages of this education. In ways like leading to less creativity, lack of social interactions, and even detachment from learning different ways or perspectives on certain things. This could be a problem because like I said above, once something is learned it is hard to unlearn or think a certain way.

https://typeset.io/questions/what-are-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-modern-40p2u2ni7m

Platforms like YouTube are overflowing with content in the era of digital communication, most of which contains freely available violence for youngsters. This is a serious issue: can watching violent content on YouTube cause kids to see such behaviors as normal or acceptable? Studies reveal a great frequency of violence in all media outlets, including television, thus the possible consequences of this problem are concerning. On YouTube, where kids can easily come across violent material without age limits, the alarming tendency is rather common. This essay will investigate how theories of media violence—more especially, Bandura’s social learning theory and ideas from related studies—showcase the more general impacts of this exposure on children.  

Albert Bandura’s social learning theory clarifies how young people view and copy behaviors they come across in media. Bandura’s famous Bobo doll experiment showed that young infants copying aggressive conduct did so after seeing adults rewarded for similar behavior. This phenomena of vicarious learning becomes especially important in the context of YouTube, where many influencers and content creators exhibit violent pranks or aggressive antics that sometimes seem to support such actions with views and likes. It is concerning that children could copy these behaviors—directly or by taught knowledge that violence can produce social benefits. Studies revealing that all new high percentages of children’s TV shows feature some sort of violence which points to the media’s continuous presence of violence, therefore reflecting a culture in which violent behavior is increasingly acceptable. 

Moreover, the hypothesis that viewing violence in media can produce a cathartic effect—decreasing aggression by allowing individuals to expel pent-up frustrations—is largely discredited by research. Rather, studies point to a correlation between children’s growing aggressiveness and exposure to violent material. With children increasingly likely to view violence as a daily part of their life, this correlation highlights how much YouTube’s environment, which features videos promoting aggression, can lead to desensitizing toward violence. If 85% of programming on premium channels include violence, as reported, what does that say about children’s experiences on a platform like YouTube, which has no central regulatory framework? The call for parental guidance becomes critical in this context.  

From personal experience, I have seen younger children’s consequences from such media exposure. Inspired by popular YouTube sites showing aggressive pranks, a friend’s younger sister began copying similar actions. Taking in the harsh humor shown, he used physical engagement as a kind of play and started conflicts in the way he thought would be funny. This incident reflects the motivational aspects of Bandura’s model; motivated by the perceived rewards of attention and laughter, the child acted out the violent behavior he observed, reinforcing the connection between media consumption and real-world behavior. 

In conclusion, the exposure to violence on platforms like YouTube poses a sophisticated risk for children, potentially fostering aggressive behavior. The application of Bandura’s social learning theory and insights from extensive research provides a framework for understanding how media influences perceptions of violence. Parents, educators, and policymakers must take action to encourage media literacy, helping children discern between entertainment and acceptable behavior. Encouragement of critical media intake helps to reduce the normalizing of violence in young brains in a setting where it is somewhat common. Along with guardians, content authors and platforms must acknowledge the consequences of the shared material and its long-term effects on the audience have duty. 

Bandura, A. (2001). Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication.MEDIAPSYCHOLOGY,3,265-299. http://cogweb.ucla.edu/crp/Media/Bandura_01.pdf

Bushman, B. J., Huesmann, L. R., & Whitaker, J. L. Violent Media Effects. https://arg.isr.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/2009.BushmanHuesmannWhitaker.ViolentMediaEffects.InNabiOliver.HandbookMediaProc.Sage_.pdf 

Morgan, M.,PH.D, & Shanahan, J.PH.D (2010).The State of Cultivation.Journal of Broadcasting&Electronic Media, 54(2), 337-355. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151003735018 

Wilson, B. J. (2008). Media and Children’s Aggression,Fear,and Altruism.The Future of Children, 18(1). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ795855.pdf 

Huesmann L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: scientific theory and research. The Journal of adolescent health: official publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine, 41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.09.005

In the modern age, most people rely on email to communicate with others almost daily. With the rapid rise of remote schooling, education, and work, some individuals use email or text more than face-to-face communication. While these tools bring an unprecedented level of convenience, they also have challenges that often get overlooked. As Kruger et al., (2005) investigated, our confidence in email to accurately deliver our intended message is often higher than it should be. Without nonverbal cues, it’s easy to misinterpret someone’s tone or intent, creating misunderstandings and unnecessary conflicts.

For a long time, psychologists have assumed that a large part of communication is nonverbal. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice, which help interpret the true meaning behind words, especially when the literal content is ambiguous (Gruman et al., 2016). Without these signals, email and texts leave much to interpretation, which can lead receivers to misread a sender’s intent. The article titled *Texting Miscommunication* (2023) highlights how the absence of these cues in digital messaging often causes people to interpret messages differently than intended, adding to the likelihood of misunderstanding.

Emails, as a means of communication, are a poor way of passing on information—as important visual and auditory cues are left out. All you have are words to convey your message. And if you are not great with words, well, then you’ve got some trouble. In the workplace, this type of miscommunication can affect productivity, team morale, and relationships. Emails are often used to deliver feedback, assign tasks, and convey essential information, so any misunderstanding can lead to decreased motivation or unnecessary conflict. Feedback intended to be constructive, for example, may be perceived as harsh if phrased too directly without a friendly tone. *Texting Miscommunication* (2023) suggests that incorporating explicit language or even emojis in less formal contexts can soften the message and help the receiver interpret the tone more accurately.

To reduce misunderstandings, it’s beneficial to adopt strategies that clarify digital communication. A polite introduction, words of appreciation, or a summary might help get messages across as intended. For more complex or sensitive topics, switching to video calls, voice messages, or, better yet, in-person face-to-face conversations can provide the additional cues needed to communicate effectively. These strategies not only bring clarity but also help people get along and work as a team in this digital era.

Jeremy Francis, an Organization Development Specialist from Trinidad and Tobago, says: “Emails became a barrier to communication, and were used as a way to sidestep important conversations and actual problems. Emails have become a way to un-communicate” (Francis, 2014). That is why recognizing the limitations of text-based communication is essential as it continues to dominate our interactions. By adjusting our digital communication habits to convey tone more accurately, we can build a more positive and productive environment, whether in the workplace or in personal settings.

References

Everyday Speech. (2023). Texting miscommunication: Causes, effects, and solutions. Retrieved from Everyday Speech.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications.

Kruger, J., Epley, N., Parker, J., & Ng, Z. (2005). Egocentrism over e-mail: Can we communicate as well as we think? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(6), 925-936.

The use of technology during the past ten years has skyrocketed and all sorts of content is available to us whenever we feel like viewing it. The content we may view is pornography and the effects of being exposed to it can be harmful. Often it involves violence, coercion, degradation, and nonconsensual actions made by men against women. Researchers Bernstein et al. (2023) claim that “internet pornography may be fostering the development of gendered, coercive, and aggressive sexualized beliefs and attitudes toward women”. Most violent acts against women are sexual in nature and if pornography can be linked as the root of it then this could address the issue and then action can be taken against it.

The aggressive acts depicted in pornography have a hand in the normalization of violent sex that involves women. The whole internet is readily available to individuals at such a young age. Children are getting tablets and phones for birthday presents at much younger ages and for the most part, their usage is not being monitored. While parents can take some liberty and put parental controls on them, this does not completely solve the problem. Researchers claim that pornography is being viewed at a stable rate and these patterns are established during adolescence or young adulthood. (Bernstein et al., 2023). During this time, we are still developing our own identity, beliefs, and attitudes making people at this age very susceptible. They are at risk of viewing violent pornography and developing gendered and stereotypical assumptions about women. While they might not go on to commit violent sexual acts against women they could still hold these beliefs that are still harmful towards women such as objectifying them. These traditional gender role attitudes can be reinforced due to the problematic viewing of pornography when viewed at a young age.

Other factors need to be taken into account when discussing the viewing of pornography. Studies have found that it is not how much an individual is viewing this type of content, but how they interact with their urges that tends to be the issue (Bernstein et al., 2023). If a young adult wants to be intimate with their partner and their only knowledge is from what they have seen in pornography, then this could cause complications. Women in this study were also asked about their sexual beliefs and many of them believed that “it is acceptable for women to be coerced into sexual activity” (Bernstein et al., 2023). This is a dangerous belief because if you are coerced into sex then it is nonconsensual sex and that is unacceptable. These beliefs could put them at risk for depression, PTSD, injuries, sexually transmitted diseases, etc. Their rights should not be second to what their male partner thinks or feels.

Being exposed to pornography alone does not mean you inherently hold sexist beliefs and attitudes or that you will become violent towards women. This study is intended to show that being exposed to violent pornography at a young age can make you more susceptible to these beliefs especially if you are not properly educated. Sexual education programs need to be implemented because people still hold these harmful and stereotypical beliefs about sex and women if young adults are viewing this type of content then programs discussing consent and respect are needed if you are pursuing a sexual relationship with your partner.

References

Bernstein, S., Warburton, W., Bussey, K., & Sweller, N. (2023). Pressure, preoccupation, and porn: The relationship between internet pornography, gendered attitudes, and sexual coercion in young adults. Psychology of Popular Media., 12(2), 159-172.

Mass media, which includes television, radio, print media, and digital platforms, plays a significant role in shaping our perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors. Its influence can be seen across various aspects of our lives, including our self-esteem.

George Gerbner and Larry Gross proposed a theory that suggests that prolonged exposure to media, particularly television, can shape individuals’ perceptions of reality. Over time, repeated exposure to certain messages and portrayals can lead to a distorted view of the world (Potter, 2006). This became known as the cultivation theory. In the context of self-esteem, cultivation theory says that individuals may internalize media messages about beauty standards, success, and social norms, leading to comparisons and potential negative self-evaluation.

Studies have shown that exposure to unrealistic beauty standards in media, particularly among women, can contribute to body dissatisfaction and low self-esteem (Paxton et al., 2008). Similarly, the portrayal of idealized lifestyles and unattainable success can lead to feelings of inadequacy and low self-worth. Moreover, social media platforms have amplified these effects, allowing individuals to constantly compare themselves to the seemingly perfect lives of others online.

While the influence of mass media on self-esteem can be detrimental, it is essential to recognize that individuals have agency in how they consume and interpret media content. Here are some strategies to mitigate the negative impacts:

• Media literacy: Developing media literacy skills can help individuals critically analyze media messages and challenge unrealistic portrayals.

• Diverse media consumption: Exposure to a variety of media sources can provide a more balanced perspective and prevent the internalization of harmful stereotypes.

• Positive self-talk: Practicing positive self-talk and affirmations can counter the negative messages received through media.

• Real-life connections: Building strong relationships and social support networks can help individuals develop a positive sense of self.

The relationship between mass media and self-esteem is complex and multifaceted. While media exposure can have negative consequences, understanding the cultivation theory and implementing strategies for critical media consumption can help individuals protect their self-esteem and maintain a healthy relationship with media.

Citation

Paxton, S. J., & Fichter, M. (2008). The impact of media exposure on body image and self-esteem in college women. Sex Roles, 58(7-8), 568-576.

Potter, W.. (2006). Cultivation Theory and Research. Human Communication Research. 19. 564 – 601. 10.1111/j.1468-2958.1993.tb00313.x.

All forms of media, whether it be film, video games, social media, books, or the news influence everyone around the world in different ways. Many have benefited greatly from viewing or taking part in these forms of media. For example, the ability to learn about a new hobby or interest from a tv show or expressing one’s opinions of different topics on social media. However, not everyone has had positive experiences indulging in said forms of media. This blog post will focus on the negative effects of media influence, more particularly the negative effects of viewing violent media at a young age. Through analyzing the text “Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems” by Gruman et al., (2016) and an article from Han et al., (2020) that discusses the aftermath of violent media exposure on adolescents, this blog post will emphasize the negative impact of violent media on the population. 

A concept discussed in chapter 7 of the text from Gruman et al., (2016) was media, more particularly, violent media and its effects on people who view it on a consistent basis. At this point it’s nearly impossible to avoid the internet or physical media. It’s gone to an extent where people’s careers are completely dependent on finding ways to make it even more influential than it already is, if that’s even possible. Gruman et al., (2016) emphasizes this point by stating that adolescents are viewing an average of 10 hours and 45 minutes of media every day! Thats an astounding difference compared to their comparison of 1999 which was only an average of 6 hours and 19 minutes (Gruman et al., 2016, p. 156). Clearly as the world of technology expands, our ability to consume different forms of media increases. The question then presents itself; how much violent media are we actually consuming, intentionally or not? The authors gathered data that essentially showed 58% of all TV shows from 1994 to 1995 contained some form of physical violence and only 4% of shows promoted non-violent messages through their depiction of violence (Gruman et al., p. 157-158). Thats over half of the possible shows to watch tainted by influential violence. After reading through chapter 7, I think it’s important to be aware that most of the research Gruman et al., (2016) used to come to this conclusion was mostly published before the year 2000. That means a lot of the results may look different if the studies were implemented in 2024. If we look at research that has been published more recently, we can get a clearer picture of what the impact of violent media on a younger audience looks like today.  

After years of being on the internet myself I think it’s safe to say that the impact of violent media has been a controversial topic for decades at this point. With parents concerned about what their children are exposed to and adults who want access to these violent media forms for their own entertainment, things can get a bit complicated. An article by Han et al., (2020) does a great job at diving into to the nitty gritty of how violent media truly impacts the younger generations. The authors took it upon themselves to implement 3 studies that addressed the long-term effects of violent media, more specifically their experience with anger and physical aggression after long exposure. Through their 3 studies they were able to utilize multiple tools to measure their results. These tools included 2 competitive reaction time (CRT) tasks, a video media questionnaire, an anger scale, a rumination response scale (RRS), and an aggression questionnaire (Han et al., 2020, pp. 3, 4, 6). Through an analysis of all 3 studies results Han et al., (2020) concluded that long-term exposure to media that includes violence is a telltale sign that an individual will experience higher levels of aggression compared to those who have lower levels of exposure. It was also found that those same individuals with higher levels of exposure to media violence were also more likely to struggle with rumination, the inability to stop processing things that provoke them (Han et al., 2020, p. 9). Overall, the study by Han et al., (2020) did a great job breaking down how violent media exposure does actually have an effect on how angry an individual gets or how long they decided to think about something that bothers them. 

In conclusion, based off the information gathered from both Gruman et al., (2016) and Han et al., (2020) it’s safe to say that exposure to violent media in general can prove to have some negative side effects you might not expect later in life. For example, I’m sure those who choose to view these forms of violent media don’t necessarily think to themselves “I want to view this violent content so I can struggle with my anger for the rest of my life” or “I want to struggle with not being able to move on from subjects that bother me.” Unfortunately, regardless of how they felt prior to viewing it, that’s the reality some people face when they choose to indulge in violent media. Going forward, higher restrictions on violent media could possibly lead to less exposure for the general population. However, due to the morbid curiosities many people in our society have, the likelihood of that happening might just be slim to none! 

References: 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated. 

Han, L., Xiao, M., Jou, M., Hu, L., Sun, R., & Zhou, Z. (2020). The long-term effect of media violence exposure on aggression of youngsters. Computers in Human Behavior, 106, 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106257 

Internet or Web 2.0 technologies like Facebook, YouTube, and cell phones have changed the face of communication and information consumption patterns. Imagine how what started as an independent tool for communication has now become indispensable in our social Book Report/Review on “How Social Media is Changing Our Lives” by John Troeger e. Smartphones make people connected all the time and social media change how people perform their identities. While technology has been adopted as a solution to many disadvantages, it has come with its solution: Mental health, Privacy, and polarization of societies.

Undoubtedly, social networking sites and cell phones also bear the responsibility to transform interpersonal communication. Applications such as Instagram, Facebook as well, and Twitter (now known as X) make moment sharing possible thus creating relationships beyond the physical space. This means that members of the family can communicate even if they are separated by thousands of miles, and new apps such as FaceTime and Zoom have added the ability to have a face-to-face conversation. However, that very digital form of communication has in the process also been gradually eradicating physical face-to-face interactions and conversations. Getting the virtual rewards of Internet interaction is not the problem in this case, as there is increasing debate that actual offline interpersonal communicative skills, as well as genuine human empathy critical thinking, and emotional literacy, might be eroding, with young generations brought up with smartphones.

Still, another era-changing impact of social media is the effect it has on mental health. Social comparison theory states that people judge their experience based on the images as reflected by other people, and these social media, for instance, Instagram and TikTok, give posts that are most probably the best moments of other people’s lives. Daily fixes of these ‘moments of happiness’ can be toxic, as they create the illusion that the whole picture is equally rosy as those short segments being promoted. In addition, the results suggest that social media use is maladaptive, as the more individuals engage in such behaviors as doom-surfing, liking, or commenting, the lower their self-esteem, but they feel more connected while being less so.

Social media is not only affecting the lives of common users who seek to find companionship or a like-minded person to share a thought with but it has also impacted the lives of citizens when it comes to decision-making, rallying for change, and sharing important information. Social media platforms have become a double-edged sword for activism: on the other hand, on the same note, they have made it possible for movements such as #MeToo and Black Lives Matter to quickly go viral. On the other hand, they have also been made worse by feeding the users fake news and have also helped facilitate polarization as algorithms serve content skewed towards trapping users into the cage of confirmation biases. This kind of filtering results in polarisation on issues like politics, climate change, and public health hence hampering constructive discussion.

In conclusion, it is possible to note that, on the one hand, the effectiveness and accessibility of communication experienced with the help of Social Media and cell phones cannot be questioned; however, on the other hand, these facilities introduced such new types of social relations that can be considered to be important for understanding the tendencies of social development. Concerning social relationships and interaction, the world is gravitating more towards Virtual relationships hence social bonding, provision of information and communication may cause Social psychology issues such as depression and social isolation. As we move forward navigating through this digitally connected world it is important to be reminded of these effects to continue to find better ways to attempt to harness the good without the negative aspects of social media.

In This blog I want to talk about the ‘Dean Scream’ and framing. The Dean scream is an incident from 2004 where presidential candidate Howard Dean was at a rally giving a speech and after riling up the crowd with ideas of them achieving victory he yelled “Yeah”. The “yeah”, which can be found here, was when heard over television sounded weak and broken and some people see this as the downfall of his career.

Although people who attended the rally in person said that it sounded different in person the moment became a viral sensation and was used to further hurt Deans already failing campaign. In an article marking the 15th anniversary of the moment there is mention of several instances of this being used against Dean. (Murray, 2019) Deans campaign webmaster mentioned that “it played into a long-running media narrative about Dean’s intensity”. A news anchor reported seeing a headline in the Drudge Report that stated, “DEAN GOES NUTS”. This shows a bit about how the moment was framed at the time.

Framing is the way in which a story is presented or its angle (Gruman, 2016, p. 185) and in this case was used to negatively frame Dean. The use of the scream to reinforce a image of dean that is unsavory is very similar to many instances of political framing we see today where politicians are judged on the way they talk, stand, or act in various situations that often don’t hold much relevance to their campaign. The framing of the Dean scream could have been an additional factor that led to the downfall of Deans campaign.

In the chapter for this week, we see that negative campaigns harm voter turnout. (Gruman, 2016, p. 186) With negative campaigns becoming more and more common we should fear that people will lose hope in voting and being involved in politics at all. We should aim to see political news sources become more objective with their reporting focusing more on issue framing rather than strategy framing. (Gruman, 2016, p. 185)

References

Gruman, J. A. (2016). Applied Social Psychology. Washington DC: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Murray, M. (2019, January 19). As Howard Dean’s ‘scream’ turns 15, its impact on American politics lives on. Retrieved from NBS NEWS: https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/meet-the-press/howard-dean-s-scream-turns-15-its-impact-american-politics-n959916

Late 2019, we all know what’s coming, the coronavirus. Now, I’m not going to start talking about fear mongering or how the issue was ‘blown out of proportion’, because in my opinion, it wasn’t. Most of us were on the edge of our seats during the pandemic, always checking stats on how many cases were local to us, checking in with friends and family, and watching the news like it was our job. However, there are certain implications of how terrified some people were while watching different statistics increase or different news outlets saying different things. Combined with cultivation theory among younger generations like gen Z, this affects mental livelihood.

There have been numerous studies that have looked into COVID-19 media causing anxiety and/or depression. I won’t bore you with the numbers, but the commonality in these is a positive correlation between higher exposure and mental illness. What we see on TV or social media, especially depending on which news outlets we watch or the people we follow, it can cultivate our reality. Some news outlets had said that COVID was just a mild case of the flu. Others were saying it was deadly and could cause permanent damage. So, this caused massive confusion and greater feelings of anxiety contributing to higher risks of mental illness.

But, correlation doesn’t always equal causation… does it?

No, there are numerous factors that could have contributed to these statistics. Unless an individual knows that the pandemic or the news/social media caused distress, there’s no way to fully know for sure. In conclusion, while the media undeniably played a role in shaping public perception during the COVID-19 pandemic, further exploration is necessary to untangle the complexities of its impact on mental health.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). In Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Sage.

Wang, C., Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Tee, M.L. et al. A chain mediation model on COVID-19 symptoms and mental health outcomes in Americans, Asians and Europeans. Sci Rep 11, 6481 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-85943-7

Montazeri, A., Mohammadi, S., M.Hesari, P. et al. Exposure to the COVID-19 news on social media and consequent psychological distress and potential behavioral change. Sci Rep 13, 15224 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42459-6

There are people that like to watch horny and rated R contents. And with all of this content, pornography or adult videos are one of the content that will influence people’s behavior the most. For people who have horny thoughts, they will be watching or reading pornography first to experience their rated R content. What it will do is to mentally satisfy people, and after watching pornography for a few times, people would find out that pornography can no longer satisfy them, and instead they would like to be physically satisfied(Krahé et al,. 2024).

There are different kinds of materials for pornography. There are embedded sexual material, nonviolent pornography, violent pornography, and others. Embedded sexual material is the scene from rated R movie that people are having sex in nature, which will be outdoors. And there are nonviolent pronography and it is when both male and female are satisfying their sexual desires and does not hurt anyone. And the one that will affect human behavior the most would be violent pornography and it is when people are having sex and being tortured at the same time, and it may cause people to die. With horny people, especially male who are watching violent pronography, it will make them to actually do the actions like raping female just to satisfy their needs(Gruman et al., 2016).

The gender roles in pornography are positive for males, but negative for females. According to the article, pornographic materials are more common in males compared to females that are adolescence, and it also says that females are more likely to be the victims in sexual behavior. For violent pornography, it is said to be male dominance and female subservience. The more powerful one is having sex with the less powerful one by either forcing them or both are willing to have sex. The effect of violent pornography is that whoever is watching them will be extremely satisfied, and people who desires more will be more likely to force people to have sex and rape them. And since violent sex is male dominance, it is likely that more female victims will increase and more females may get hurt and even die just because of male’s violent sexual needs(Gruman et al., 2016)(Krahé et al., 2024).

The effect of human behavior on pornography is so huge that it will be necessary to reduce the harmful sexual behaviors. One way to minimize the harmful effect is to teach people that they shouldn’t harm people. Most people who learned about pornography related things when they were young, and lots of people become horny when they were still kids. People will be thought and receiving critical viewing training, and this helps to reduce violent behavior. Pornography is not a violent and harmful behavior and it should not be.

Krahé, B., Tomaszewska, P., & Schuster, I. (2024). The role of pornography in shaping young adults’ sexual scripts and sexual behavior: A longitudinal study with university students. Psychology of Popular Media., doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000553
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

As someone who plays violent video games very often, I often hear about the aggressive tendencies it can cause on the people who play them. I have not personally experienced this height in aggression, but am still very interested in the topic. Our text also gets into how violent video games can increase aggression in the people who play them. However, the text itself points out how research on this has mainly looked at solo players (Gruman et al., 2016). So, I wanted to do some research to see if there was any more recent research that looked into video games violence but in the context of social settings or playing with friends, to see if heightened aggression was still seen.

I found an article that asked whether violent video games would still make people aggressive in social settings, or if this social environment would change things. In this article, they had 100 male participants play violent & nonviolent video games, either alone, or with another person. As expected, the results showed that playing violent video games led to more aggressive behavior, confirming the previous research. They did however find that when the particpants were playing with another person, they found much lower levels in aggressive thinking. This goes against what was predicted by the General Aggression Model (GAM), which suggested that social play should increase aggression because of competition or influence from others (Drummond, 2014).

The article also wanted to study how social play affected hostility & aggressive actions. Players of violent games did become more hostile & aggressive, but playing with someone else didn’t change these outcomes very much. The researchers thought that this might be because the second player (a confederate) was told to act neutral & not provoke aggression. The research goes on to say that this controlled environment might not reflect real-life social gaming, where people miaght act more competitively or aggressively, which could influence behavior more strongly (Drummond, 2014).

Another part of the study explored whether personality traits like trait aggression, or beliefs about aggression, would affect the results. While people with higher aggression scores were generally more prone to aggressive thoughts, these traits didn’t seem to change the effect of violent games or social play. The study suggested that this might be because the games used in the experiment had similar mechanics, reducing the difference between violent & nonviolent games (Drummond, 2014).

In conclusion, the research supports the idea that violent video games increase aggression, but it also shows that playing with others might reduce aggressive thoughts. The social setting didn’t seem to lower aggressive behavior, but it did lessen aggressive thinking. Overall, more research is needed to understand how real-life social dynamics, like playing with friends or competing with strangers, might affect the link between violent games & aggression. This could help us better understand how violent video games affect people in various situations.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

Drummond, J. A. (2014). Playing violent video games alone or with others present: Relations with aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and hostility (Doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=bgsu1395079367

As we all know, social media prevalence has increased, especially in younger generations. With the rise of popular platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter (now X), came another social media platform known as TikTok. TikTok was created in 2018 when a video sharing app called Musical.ly was renamed and gained more popularity. The main question is “What is TikTok doing to our brains?”

We can start with how easily it is for someone to ‘go viral’ on TikTok. As soon as a video is posted, it may show up on someone’s ‘for you’ page which is a calculated algorithm for getting videos to different people. The more people that interact with that video, the more popular it gets and the more people it reaches. With popularity comes followers and influencers who use TikTok and the brand deals they receive through TikTok as a full time job. The social cognitive theory comes to mind when individuals want to become these influencers because they see them being rewarded; money, fame, popularity etc. Ordinary people can try to obtain this goal through vicarious learning using the social cognition theory. The first step would be giving the current influencers attention such as watching and interacting with their videos. Secondly, they use a representational process where they remember the behaviors produced by these influencers (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 164). They then start the behavioral production process to start to replicate these videos such as dancing, get ready with me’s, or vlog style content. This is where a person can adapt their memories of the influencers into generalizations that apply to their own situations. Lastly comes the motivational process involved in these behaviors. Gruman (2017), mentions that most people will not preform every behavior that they observe, so the motivation of the individual determines what action they will replicate (p.164).

Although TikTok has become a space for people to express their creativity and interests, it has many downsides. Besides the main factors of decreasing teens self esteem and increasing their screen times, it is also affecting their attention spans. Due to TikTok’s short videos, it is decreasing students’ attention spans and ability to focus for longer periods of time. A study by Alfatih et al. (2024), was conducted to measure attention spans of students who use TikTok daily. This study recorded 71% of participants finding a correlation between TikTok and their study habits and 83.9% of student finding a correlation between TikTok and and their study distraction (Alfatih et al., 2024, p.209-210). Students agreed that TikTok’s short video format is affecting their attention spans and heightening their desire for rapid information acquisition (Alfatih et al., 2024, p. 211). This study not only proves that TikTok causes a lower attention span, but also mentions that students are recognizing this problem. This problem can lead to a decrease in deeper conversations and affect students’ minds.

A study by Liu et al. (2021), mentions the short form video format that some social medias like TikTok have and how it can affect not only attention spans but the way people receive and process information (p. 2). The users of TikTok have adapted to this quick environment and therefore require quicker access to information. They want this information with little to no time investment causing a lack of motivation when it comes to doing things that may require more time and effort. This can also affect studying and learning patterns simply because students cannot focus for long enough to retain any information.

A solution, however, is not that simple and requires discipline from the user. Reducing screen time and engaging in physical behaviors and hobbies is a good start to repairing the damage and fixing short-form video application addiction. TikTok has also created a screen time feature where users can limit their time on the app. This along with other disciplines can improve attention spans and fix the growing social media problems in younger generations.

References

Alfatih, M. F., Nashwandra, N. B., Nugraha, N. I., Banyubasa, A., Simangunsong, G. A., Barus, I. R. G., & Fami, A. (2024, June 13). The influence of TIKTOK short-form videos on attention span and study habits of students in College of Vocational Studies IPB University. EDUTECH. https://doi.org/10.17509/e.v23i2.69229

Fitzgerald, E. (2021, Dec 17). Local School Districts Respond to TikTok Challenge Promoting School Violence. TCA Regional Newshttps://ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/wire-feeds/local-school-districts-respond-tiktok-challenge/docview/2611547060/se-2

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). In Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Sage.

Liu, Y., Ni, X., & Niu, G. (2021). Perceived Stress and Short-Form Video Application Addiction: A Moderated Mediation Model. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 747656. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747656

I have always had a hunch that the quality of interaction via online communication fails in comparison to face to face communication. I once took a trip where no technology was allowed to be had during the duration of the stay, and I when I returned back to the “real world” where communication via online means was abundant, I felt unfullfilled and disatisfied with my online interactions. It turns out there may be some research that align with my feelings on this particular subject.

What more perfect scenario for study than the conditions led by lockdown due to Covid 19, where many people were a lot more isolated in their day to day lives. Many people tried to compensate for lack of face to face contact with digital communication. The question is, was it enough though? Was it an adequate replacement? The answer, according to this research is simply, no. Media Richness Theory (MRT) states that the degree of nonverbal cues, including and especially the immediacy of them, is the most important prerequisite for building relationships. (S. Stieger). In communication situations where there was little to no social cues (example, text based communication), interaction partners will conclude that their partners are less empathetic or friendly. Empathy and friendliness are basis for the foundation for relationships, and without this cruicial component, it is much more difficult to form bonds.

In a somewhat recent large cross-sectional study by Hall et al, it was shown that face to face contact outside of the home was a big predictor of wellbeing. Another cross-sectional study by Newson et al, followed with similar findings. Face to face had positive effects on wellbeing and was not able to be made up for with digital communication. More information on these experiments will be posted at the end of this blog for your convernience.

So why is face to face communication so much more important in regards to mental health than its digital competitor? Researchers have long noted that far less communication is transfered over by online interaction than face to face, including cues about personality, social status, mood, etc. All of these features enhance the experience of face to face contact, where as online communication tends to strip all these elements. Our minds have evolved for many years with face to face contact, with only recent introductions where we are talking with one another, but devoid of all of those essential components. This might have a “dimming down” effect on the entire experience and is certainly in conjuntion to my own personal experiences.

I think whether we know it or not, our online activity could be effecting us in ways we might be entirely consciously aware of. I think it is important to keep track of our mental health, and when we notice we feel better or worse mentally. Of course, this isn’t entirely a stright forward subject. Those with anxiety and other mental health related isses could find reprieve from some social interactions, but generally speaking face to face interactions give us a richer experience than online communication.

References

S. Stieger, D. Lewetz, D Willinger (2023), Face-to-Face More Important than Digital Communication for Mental Health During the Pandemic, Scientific Reports, Nature, Oct 23, 2924 https://pdf.live/edit?url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10191089/pdf/41598_2023_Article_34957.pdf&guid=c91d8b3a-92e6-604a-17f7-96c56d7af110&installDate=110423&source=google-d_pdftab_crx

If you are a parent, you must always be looking out for your children, especially if they are very young. You feed them healthy food. You help them with their homework. You hug and kiss them whenever they feel upset, or whenever you had those moments when you just wanted to give them more love. Therefore, as a parent, you must have been quite concerned when you saw your children playing violent video games with their friends. You immediately thought that if your kids become more exposed to these games, they might become as violent as the characters they are playing as. Now, the question is, should you really be concerned about your very young, very innocent little humans to play video games that involve weapons, fighting, or any of the sort?

A study was conducted back in 1987 considering this topic. Josephson wanted to discover if violent media does truly cause young children to act violently. He gathered a group of young boys as participants of this study. The boys’ teachers were then asked whenever they displayed aggression traits in school. Furthermore, this study is rather intricate. It is referred to as the 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 design, because there are not two, but four variables that are observed in this experiment. The four variables are the following: TV show (aggressive/non-aggressive), trait aggression (high/low), frustration (high/low), and interview method (walkie-talkie/microphone).

Half of the participants had to watch a nonviolent or a violent TV show. And then, half of the participants had to watch a cartoon afterwards, which was edited to have “technical difficulties” so the experimenter had to stop it. This is to provoke frustration from the participants. And after this, the boys were mock interviewed, either with a walkie-talkie or a microphone. The violent TV show that was shown to half of the participants had characters that used a walkie-talkie. The walkie-talkie is the experiment’s violence-related cue. They were then sent to their school to play three minutes of floor hockey.

The results are what you might have expected, but at the same time, they are quite surprising. The participants that were recorded to have past violent behavior were proven to have been affected by the violent TV program, the provoked frustration, and the violence-related cue. These boys exhibited increased violent behavior. However, they only exhibited increased violent behavior during the first period of their play. They did not become increasingly more violent afterwards. And also, most importantly, the participants that had no record of past violent behavior were not at all affected by the violent TV program, the provoked frustration, and the violence-related cue. These boys did not show violent behavior at all.

All in all, Josephson’s study effectively proved that yes, you can let your kids play those types of video games. This study is a valid source that proves that there is no correlation between violent video games and violent behavior. Even if that game you caught them playing is about World War 2 or where players fight to the death, as long as your children did not engage in past aggressive behavior, you should not be worried at all. Let them play with their friends! They are having lots of fun!

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

Miscommunication happens all around us in everyday life. This can be from text messages, emails in the workplace, direct messages, or even through voicemails. This can result in many issues that could be resolved from a phone call or even a simple face to face conversation.
For the workplace it is important to keep communication perfect. If not, it could result in deadlines being miscommunicated, what work needs to get done, and how things should be done as well. Sometimes this could affect a business’s environment entirely, it could even result in a business losing money as well if something is not done on time or correctly to how it should have been done.
Its is could for a workplace to have clear tasks, goals, and objectives. If one email is messed up and not foxed immediately it could cause so many issues that might be irreversible. We need to develop better ways in communicating especially in the workplace. That is the main issue in workplaces having screw ups or not getting things done. Also, could result in employers looking at their workers like they are not getting stuff done or can make them seem unreliable as well.
Hopefully we can find better ways to communicate through a workplace. Even in meetings, they can help so everyone is in the same room with one another talking about the same thing and having others speak about different ways to do certain goals or tasks. That is an easier and better way to communicate through the workplace.
“How to Fix Poor Communication in the Workplace.” Award-Winning Job Skills Education – ASU CareerCatalyst, careercatalyst.asu.edu/newsroom/workforce-education/how-to-fix-poor-communication-in-the-workplace/. Accessed 23 Oct. 2024.

Miscommunication happens all around us in everyday life. This can be from text messages, emails in the workplace, direct messages, or even through voicemails. This can result in many issues that could be resolved from a phone call or even a simple face to face conversation.
For the workplace it is important to keep communication perfect. If not, it could result in deadlines being miscommunicated, what work needs to get done, and how things should be done as well. Sometimes this could affect a business’s environment entirely, it could even result in a business losing money as well if something is not done on time or correctly to how it should have been done.
Its is could for a workplace to have clear tasks, goals, and objectives. If one email is messed up and not foxed immediately it could cause so many issues that might be irreversible. We need to develop better ways in communicating especially in the workplace. That is the main issue in workplaces having screw ups or not getting things done. Also, could result in employers looking at their workers like they are not getting stuff done or can make them seem unreliable as well.
Hopefully we can find better ways to communicate through a workplace. Even in meetings, they can help so everyone is in the same room with one another talking about the same thing and having others speak about different ways to do certain goals or tasks. That is an easier and better way to communicate through the workplace.
“How to Fix Poor Communication in the Workplace.” Award-Winning Job Skills Education – ASU CareerCatalyst, careercatalyst.asu.edu/newsroom/workforce-education/how-to-fix-poor-communication-in-the-workplace/. Accessed 23 Oct. 2024.

The use of social media has greatly increased over the last few years with 70% of adults now using social media (Allen, 2019). It has opened the door to social networks with those with similar interests all over the world. It has become easier than ever for people to connect with friends and family who live far away. Its use has also become increasingly popular in those managing mental illness.

Social media offers network support for those with mental illness by promoting engagement with similar others by sharing information, experiences and ways to cope with symptoms. It also provides informational support by being able to contact medical providers and ask questions about medication, and social media provides esteem support by providing encouragement. Few people have access to local mental health services in the United States and the ease of access to social media has helped those get the help they need. Some people with mental illness such as social anxiety and schizophrenia have difficulty with face-to-face interaction and have been able to create connections and friendships in this way and feel less isolated. Research has found that those with schizophrenia prefer online communication since it does not require immediate feedback as sometimes communication can be interrupted by their symptoms. It has also been found that frequent use of social media has increased activity within the community such as shopping, going to work, visiting with friends and family, participating in religious services and voting in local elections (Naslund, 2020).

Recently, apps have been developed such as one called PRIME that is designed to track symptoms and can help the person set goals to improve motivation and engagement in those with schizophrenia. The app PeerFit was designed to promote in-person exercise groups and lifestyle classes to encourage a healthy lifestyle. There is also a private Facebook group where users can connect with others to provide support (Naslund, 2020). The Horyzons Project is a digital platform that combines peer social networks, recovery and relapse prevention, interventions for social functioning and clinical support. Those in a study that used the platform for 6 or 9 months were found to have stable and high social functioning in both groups from their baseline up to their 18 month follow up. They also had a greater chance to find a job or further their education. However, there was not a significant effect of the Horyzons program on social functioning compared to those not in the program study (Alvarez-Jimenez, 2021).

There has been much research on the negative effects of social media use as there is a risk of being exposed to hostility and bullying which can increase anxiety and depression and can affect social interaction. It is important to be aware of the possible harm in social media use and how to handle it to minimize harm. However, it is too early to say the benefits of social media use outweigh the harm. More research needs to be done in this area (Naslund, 2020).

References

Allen, Summer. (September 19, 2019). Social media’s growing impact on our lives. American Psychological Association. Social media’s growing impact on our lives. Social media’s growing impact on our lives

Naslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J., & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social Media and Mental Health: Benefits, Risks, and Opportunities for Research and Practice. Journal of technology in behavioral science, 5(3), 245–257. Social Media and Mental Health: Benefits, Risks, and Opportunities for Research and Practice – PMC

Alvarez-Jimenez, M., Koval, P., Schmaal, L., Bendall, S., O’Sullivan, S., Cagliarini, D., D’Alfonso, S., Rice, S., Valentine, L., Penn, D. L., Miles, C., Russon, P., Phillips, J., McEnery, C., Lederman, R., Killackey, E., Mihalopoulos, C., Gonzalez-Blanch, C., Gilbertson, T., Lal, S., Gleeson, J. F. M. (2021). The Horyzons project: a randomized controlled trial of a novel online social therapy to maintain treatment effects from specialist first-episode psychosis services. World psychiatry : official journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 20(2), 233–243. The Horyzons project: a randomized controlled trial of a novel online social therapy to maintain treatment effects from specialist first‐episode psychosis services – PMC

Rehabilitation in the Criminal Justice System: Shifting from Punishment to Progress

The criminal justice system in the United States has long focused on punishment as the primary response to crime. However, in recent years, there has been a growing recognition that punishment alone does not address the underlying causes of criminal behavior or reduce recidivism. Rehabilitation, a process of reforming the behavior of the offender and better equipping him with means to get back into the fold of society, is now increasingly debated as an alternative. Rehabilitation programs can range from educational and vocational training to mental health services and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). By focusing more on reform rather than retribution, we can have a more just and effective correction system.

One relevant course concept that highlights the importance of rehabilitation is the social learning theory, which suggests that behavior is learned from the environment through observation, imitation, and modeling. The authors of Applied Social Psychology: Gruman et al. (2017) state: “According to social learning theory, criminal activity represents learned behaviors that develop through a person’s interactions and experiences with the social environment. This learning takes place as a result of various processes, including observing and imitating the criminal behavior of others, receiving positive consequences for engaging in criminal behavior (e.g., peer approval), realizing that such behavior can effectively lead to desired outcomes (i.e., have instrumental value), and developing a high sense of self-efficacy in using antisocial means to achieve one’s aims” (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 292). This, applied to criminal justice, would mean that when offenders are being placed into environments that reinforce criminal behavior, they become more likely to reoffend. For example, if offenders are given the opportunity to practice positive, prosocial behavior-such as education or therapy-they are more likely to develop behaviors that help them reintegrate into society.

Chapter 11 of Applied Social Psychology (Gruman et al., 2017) explores the notion that criminal behavior is shaped by both individual and situational factors. It highlights that the interaction between a person’s characteristics and their environment plays a crucial role in shaping behavior. For instance, prison environments that encourage aggressive behavior through peer pressure or lack of rehabilitation programs can increase recidivism rates. On the other hand, environments that focus on cognitive restructuring and skill-building provide inmates with the tools they need for societal reentry. For example, Norway and Denmark are considered to have the most effective and humane prison systems in the world. Their prison system focuses on rehabilitation and reintegration into society, and has a low recidivism rate. All Norwegian prisons offer formal education, including primary and secondary school, vocational training, and work qualifying courses. “The Norwegian Education Act” guarantees prisoners the same access to education as other citizens (Incarceration Can Be Rehabilitative, n.d). Norwegian prisons also offer drug treatment and mental health programs. For example, prisoners at Halden Prison, Norway’s maximum security prison, participate in yoga classes with their prison officers. This demonstrates that when prisons prioritize rehabilitation and provide resources like education, vocational training, and mental health support, they can significantly reduce recidivism and better prepare inmates for successful reintegration into society, as seen in countries like Norway and Denmark.. 

The United States Department of Justice emphasizes the importance of evidence-based rehabilitation programs in reducing recidivism. According to the DOJ, “Research shows that recidivism risk can be effectively reduced through evidence-based programming that targets criminogenic needs, such as courses in cognitive behavioral therapy and other topics” (The United States Department of Justice, 2023). This supports the idea that focusing on programs addressing the root causes of criminal behavior; such as addiction, mental health issues, and lack of education can significantly reduce the likelihood of reoffending.

A key benefit of rehabilitation is its lasting positive effect on both individuals and society. Without rehabilitation, incarceration frequently results in a cycle of reoffending, as individuals are released without the resources or skills to prevent future criminal behavior. In contrast, rehabilitation programs provide people with the tools to secure stable employment, manage their emotions, and reintegrate into their communities. Research indicates that prisoners who engage in educational and vocational training programs are less likely to reoffend and more likely to find employment after release.

In conclusion, shifting the focus of the criminal justice system from punishment to rehabilitation is crucial for reducing recidivism and fostering positive change. Greater integration of rehabilitation programs into prisons, along with more resources for the offenders themselves, would inevitably help break the cycle of crime and create a safer society. The integration of evidence-based approaches, such as CBT, into rehabilitation programs offers a practical solution to addressing the underlying causes of criminal behavior. This shift not only benefits individuals but also helps build stronger, more resilient communities.

References 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology : understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

Incarceration can be rehabilitative. (n.d.). CEPR. https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/incarceration-can-be-rehabilitative

Kirby, E. J. (2019, July 7). How Norway turns criminals into good neighbours. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/stories-48885846

Lahdon, T. (2023, November 27). From the desk of BJA. Bureau of Justice Assistance. https://bja.ojp.gov/news/justice-matters/desk-bja-november-2023

The United States Department of Justice. (2023).

Today’s youth violence is at an alarming level and therefore it is important to understand its origin in order to apply effective prevention practices. Based on Bandura’s social learning theory, a person tends to witness and later demonstrate actions, which may result in criminal activity. Youth tend to respond violently if they have witnesses to antisocial behavior from either their family, friends, or the media which is often because they believe it will bring them approval from their peers or rewards. The article “Developmental Risk Factors for Youth Violence,” which established a clear link between poor behavioral development in early childhood and delinquency later in life, aligns well with this conclusion. For instance, when teachers identify antisocial behavior in pupils at the age of ten, it could serve as a clear indicator of future violent acts in the child. The statement provides a clear illustration of how early intervention can eliminate the likelihood of future violence.

In a more recent context pertaining to risk factors identified by Andrews and Bonta (2016), the interplay between individual, family, school, peer, and community domains gives a complex perspective of the causes of youth violence. A more pertinent issue relates to the findings from the study, which deal with the family structure: a violent parent’s attitude at age 10 can make a child more prone to violence by the age of eighteen. This aligns well with the social learning perspective, which establishes certain acceptable behaviors at a very young age through observation of others. A child who observes parent-child aggression patterns as normal is likely to accept these patterns, encompassing all the observational learning possibilities suggested by Bandura. Therefore, defining healthy parental attitudes at an early stage can help prevent children from internalizing violence.  

Also, peer relations are important in the development of behaviors during the adolescent stage of life. The article also asserts that involvement with delinquent peers, involvement in gangs, and the influence of peers in the surrounding environment significantly increase the risk of violence in youth. This aligns perfectly with Bandura’s theory that the environment shapes nearly all human behaviors. When a young male gathers the opinions of his peers about the acceptance of violent behavior, he is more likely to engage in violent behavior himself. Bandura’s observation of others imitating Einstein even supports this. In the case of adolescents, intervention efforts should focus on seeking out isolated individuals and utilizing additional cultural resources to counteract the negative influence of peers.

The research’s focus on risk factors’ cumulative effect leads to the conclusion that exposure to many risks at different stages of development leads to future violence. This aligns with the theories of Bandura, Andrews, and Bonta, which suggest that the presence of individual risk factors, such as immaturity, particularly in youth’s high-risk areas, and adverse situations can increase the likelihood of engaging in criminal activities. Whenever possible, we must address these risks with appropriate and thorough interventions during critical developmental stages, particularly in late childhood and adolescence, when the risk of such behavior is particularly high. The development study has identified deficits in social interaction and problem-solving skills as characteristics of children exposed to violence, which, if resolved, can go a long way in tackling risks resulting from early exposure to violence.  

By incorporating Bandura’s social learning theory and the findings from “Developing Risk Factors for Youth Violence,” we have fully understood the phenomenon of youth violence through a variety of factors. Admitting violence as a behavior, not an event, but a fusion of interactions and repetitions, enables us to advocate for interventions more strategically. Intervening on changing attitudes about violence in the families of youths, reducing negative peer interaction, and dealing with personal risk factors can support the healthy development of youths. It is indeed troubling that even as the world stands aghast at what appears to be an escalation in youth violence worldwide, it becomes imperative to provide mechanisms in society to lessen the chances of escalation in violence and to assist youth in breaking such cycles of violence. 

What is the cost of a crime? Gruman et. al. (2017) identifies retribution as one of the goals of prison, and defines it as “to serve a sentence as ‘repayment’ for the crime”. It is generally agreed upon that going to jail, and therefore having freedoms removed, is the price that is paid for committing a crime.

However, what is not generally agreed upon is the standard of care in American prisons. Do incarcerated people deserve access to items like menstrual pads and deodorant? Many prisoners report that although they were given small amounts of these items, if they ran out they could not obtain more. To make matters worse, these items were offered on commissary, or the store that prisoners were allowed to buy from, but were frequently too expensive for the majority of prisoners. One formerly incarcerated woman, Kimberly Haven, reported that she was forced to use other items to staunch blood flow, and needed a hysterectomy as a result (Haven, 2019).

Additionally, basic medical care in prisons is severely lacking. One study by Jacobi (2005) found that some prison medical offices lacked even basic sanitary items like a sink and alcohol gel. Medical staff performed evaluations and treatments without sanitizing the space or their own hands between patients. Furthermore, medical request slips from prisoners were left for a month or more without addressing the issue.

On a broader scale, many prisons do not adhere to CDC standards for prevention of diseases like tuberculosis, HIV, and syphilis, and even leave many chronic conditions like asthma and hypertension untreated. Mental health screenings are performed inadequately, and medical staff is frequently under qualified or untrained (Jacobi, 2005).

The question remains: is this the price we pay for our crimes? Are inhuman conditions part of the punishment of prison? And are we content to allow our fellow citizens to suffer as retribution?

Sources

Gruman, J.A., Schneider, F.W., & Coutts, L.A. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

For this blog post I want to talk about the differences between prison and house arrest. Americans have long been enamored by the idea of being ‘tough on crime’. It has been used as a political calling card and is seen as the main goal of prison by Americans since the 70’s. (Gruman, 2016) This idea has led to overpopulated prisons. In this blog we will compare the cost of prison vs house arrest and the justice aspect of house arrest.

The average cost of incarceration for one person is $30K to $60K per year (Prison Inside Team, 2023), while the cost of house arrest is about $6K a year. (Lapidos, 2009) A research article from the Brennan Center estimated that nearly 40 percent of prisoners do not pose a public safety risk which at the time was 576,000 people. (Eisen, 2016) If we roughly estimate that the average yearly cost of incarceration is $45,000 per person and the cost of house arrest is $10,000 per year (adjusting for inflation) the cost of prison is nearly $26 billion versus $6 Billion. This savings is a good reason for opting for house arrest over incarceration.

While house arrest may seem like a slap on the wrist compared to prison it is not something that should be overlooked. People on house arrest have to pay in part for the cost of daily monitoring which can be looked at as a form of punishment. Their lives are also inconvenient by the house arrest. I am also not arguing that house arrest should be used in all cases, but only for those who do not pose a risk to the community. There is a great deal of difference between someone who gets caught doing drugs versus someone who cooks and distributes drugs. House arrest also allows the arrestee maintain community engagement and work relations which allows for better reentry into society. This helps decrease recidivism because poverty is one of the biggest predictors of recidivism. (Holtfreter, Reisig, & Morash, 2004)

There are many reasons as to why house arrest is advantageous and should be seriously considered. With the money that could be saved from using house arrest programs we could invest in community interventions that would reduce crime from the source. It is important that we continually move forward towards crime reduction and rehabilitation, and I think that house arrest is a simple yet affective step towards this.

References

Eisen, L.-B. (2016, December 9). How Many Americans Are Unnecessarily Incarcerated? Retrieved from Brennan Center: https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/how-many-americans-are-unnecessarily-incarcerated

Gruman, J. A. (2016). Applied Social Psychology. Washington DC: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Holtfreter, K., Reisig, M. D., & Morash, M. (2004). Poverty, State Capital, and Recidivism Among Women Offenders. Criminology and Public Policy Volume: 3 Issue: 2, 185-208.

Lapidos, J. (2009, January 28). You’re Grounded! How do you qualify for house arrest? Retrieved from SLATE: https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/01/how-do-you-qualify-for-house-arrest.html

Prison Inside Team. (2023, September 29). How Much Does It Cost Per Prisoner In The US? Retrieved from Prison Inside: https://prisoninside.com/how-much-does-it-cost-per-prisoner-in-the-us/

The topic I will be talking about is Interrogations. When looking at this it is something that’s all over the world. They have many shows like 48 hours, and many more. I watch them all the time and I love it. Interrogations are one thing that helps the detectives really get into the persons head and mess them up to confess the truth.

In our notes it says “Police interrogations of suspects are a critical way of gathering evidence for a criminal case”. The suspects love to lie and they think they can get away with it but the detectives are very smart and already know the answers to everything. This relates to my life outside of school because it’s something that I love to look into and watch. Many people don’t like stuff like this because there can be very chilling cases which is true but you have to get justice for the victim and their family so you’re doing it for them. In the notes it talks about police lineups. I feel like they do that more in movies than in real life, unless they don’t show it anymore but Ive only seen it in movies. I don’t agree with it because it takes the victim back to the horrible experience that may have happened to them which is something that you don’t want to do. They should just be able to either show a picture of the suspect or explain what he or she may look like to them. Also, in interrogations, some victims may not think they are being recorded because once the detectives leave the room, they may have their parents in their with them if they are underage and may confess right then and there to them but not to the detectives. This is a great thing to have in the room because it can easily give the answer the suspect isn’t giving them without even asking.

In this journal article, I found that “Several theories have been proposed to account for why an individual may confess. Some may start having feelings of guilt which result from transgressions of societal or moral norms that this internal state is likely to produce anxiety or discomfort (Meissner, et al. 2015). Other theories of confession focus on the social pressure and anxiety of the interrogation, particularly when suspects actively deceive the interrogator with regard to their culpability. For example, interrogators should increase that anxiety experienced by suspects during an interrogation should increase their discomfort associated with being deceptive” (Meissner, et al. 2015). This explains that when the suspects are in the room with the detectives, they have so much anxiety and discomfort that they may confess to something they may or not have done, but most likely confess to something they did do because they have too much anxiety to even deal with it anymore.

In conclusion, Many people don’t really know what goes on in interrogation rooms and what the detectives, suspects, and the victim have to go through. The police work very hard to be able to get straight to the point and they don’t mess around when it comes to the truth. Interrogations are a very well known factor when it comes to being a detective and its something that works well.

References:

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4833-6973-0

Meissner, C. A., Kelly, C. E., & Woestehoff, S. A. (2015, November 3). Improving the effectiveness of suspect interrogations. Annual Review of Law and Social Science. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-120814-121657#referenceContainer

The word deviance means going against societal and cultural norms. And, there are many deviant behaviors that are considered as criminal. Deviancy training is the notion of how socialization in a deviant peer group occurs. Basically, it explains how an individual’s deviant behavior is born. A 1996 longitudinal study conducted by Dishion, Spracklen, Andrews, and Patterson addressed exactly how deviancy training occurs. Additionally, the study aimed at emphasizing the importance of goals that involve intervention and prevention of future criminal behavior among young men.

Dishion and his colleagues chose 186 13- and 14- year old teenage boys as the subjects of the study. All subjects came from places with high rates of crime. The researchers examined the participants’ interactions amongst each other; and also, their rates of deviant behavior was measured two days later. Each participant was paired up with one friend, and they were required to work together on a problem-solving task for 25 minutes. The experiment was conducted in a clinical laboratory.

The task that the participants had to do is comprised of five parts. The first part is that each pair must plan an activity together. The next second parts are to solve problems that actually happened recently to one of the participants. The second part is about conflict with parents. The third part is about conflict with peers. And finally, the last second parts happened to their friend they are working with. The fourth part is about the friend’s conflict with his parents. The fifth part is about the friend’s conflict with peers.

For observation, the participants were divided into three groups: the no-delinquent group, the mixed group, and the delinquent group. The no-delinquent group had pairs of boys who were both never arrested. The mixed group had pairs of boys in which one was arrested, and the delinquent group had pairs of boys who were both arrested. The researchers noticed that the boys signaled approval through laughter. And also, the participants in the no-delinquent group and the mixed group laughed when they talked about prosocial behavior (i.e. altruism), while the participants in the delinquent group laughed when they talked about antisocial behavior (i.e. criminality).

This just goes to show that choosing what crowd to associate with can truly impact and even change instilled beliefs and attitudes. It is important for young people to be associated with the right people, so they can be shown the right path. This was demonstrated clearly in the mixed group, as just mentioned. By discussing about prosocial behavior with their friends, the delinquent participants were possibly and hopefully influenced. Intervention and prevention programs has to be implemented with these ideas in mind.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

In the judicial system, there are multiple pieces that will make it work, including witnesses, criminals, lawyers, judges, and jury. And judges could be one of the most important factors because they will put the defendant to trial and it will completely change their life. When the judges are instrucing the jury for a verdict, they will collect evidence and decide whether to give guilty verdicts or innocent verdicts. And according to Steblay, Hosch, Culhane, and McWethy(2006) the mock jurors who received unacceptable evidence will then be instructed by the judge to disregard the evidence and give guilty verdicts(Gruman et al., 2016).

There are many judges that will give criminals either guilty verdicts or innocent verdicts. And those who are tainted judges are more likely to give the criminals innocent verdicts when it is very obvious that the criminals are guilty. In the article, there are lots of judges in West Germany and they are all tainted judges when the criminals are Nazi crimes and when the victims are Jewish. Some West German people are basically anti-semitism and that includes the judges. So in this case if the criminals are German and the victims are Jewish, the judges will most likely give the criminals inocent verdicts even though there is evidence(Kern et al., 2024).

The judges that give innocent people guilty verdicts and guilty people innocent verdicts are fainted judges. According to the result in the article, more than half of the defendants were convicted and this would be most likely by the judges who are not tainted. The article mentioned that if the judges at the court are tainted, the criminals are more likely to escape from the conviction(Kern et al., 2024). The decisions that judges make are important because their verdicts will change crime and the victim’s life and it is going to be unfair if the crimes get away from guilt(Gruman et al., 2016).

There are judges who give criminals innocent verdicts, and there would also be judges who give innocent people guilty verdicts. One reason that causes innocent people to become defendants is that those who called themselves witness SEE them commit a crime while the defendant did not even do anything illegal. And with tainted judges making decisions, there is a possibility that they believe in the witness. And it will lead to innocent people going to jail for a long time without doing anything illegal. In this case, not only will the witness influence the defendant’s life, but the judges will influence it even more(Gruman et al., 2016).

Reference
Kern, H. L., & Vanberg, G. (2024). Transitional justice and the rule of law: Tainted judges and accountability for nazi crimes in west germany. The Journal of Politics, 86(4), 1333. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/729959
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology : Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

Through this week’s reading, we explored theories of criminal behavior from a social-psychological perspective, emphasizing the interplay of both dispositional and situational factors (Gruman et al., 2016). I want to focus on dispositional factors, which refer to inherent traits or characteristics that individuals are born with or develop early in life. These can include personality traits, temperaments, and certain predispositions that influence behavior (Gruman et al., 2016). In the context of criminal justice, these traits, such as impulsivity, emotional instability (neuroticism), and antisocial attitudes, have been found to significantly influence the likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior (Gruman et al., 2016).

A recent study published in Scientific Reports reveals that a combination of “bright” and “dark” personality traits can help predict criminal behavior, including both first-time offenses and recidivism (Dolan, 2024). Similarly to our text, the researchers found that higher levels of emotional instability (neuroticism), risk-taking (openness), and harmful traits (sadism and deceitfulness) correlated with increased criminal activity (Dolan, 2024). Additionally, neuroticism and deceitfulness specifically emerged as strong indicators of reoffending (Dolan, 2024).

Understanding the personality traits that drive criminal behavior is crucial for future prevention and rehabilitation. While previous research focuses solely on either bright traits, like emotional stability and conscientiousness, or dark traits, such as narcissism and psychopathy, this study investigates both (Dolan, 2024).

They identified the trait of neuroticism with both initial offenses and recidivism, suggesting emotional instability as a risk factor for criminality (Dolan, 2024). Openness to experience was linked to first-time offending but not recidivism, indicating its relevance for initial crimes (Dolan, 2024). Interstingly, extraversion was lowest in both first-time and repeat offenders compared to individuals without a criminal history, possibly reflecting adaptation to the prison environment (Dolan, 2024). Traits like agreeableness and conscientiousness did not significantly predict criminal behavior after accounting for social desirability bias (Dolan, 2024).

Ultimately, the study shows that personality is complex, and both bright and dark traits play significant roles in criminal behavior. The researchers advocate for a further understanding of how these traits interact and evolve over time, aiming to inform effective prevention and rehabilitation strategies within the criminal justice system (Dolan, 2024).

Reflecting on these findings, it is important to consider how our understanding of personality from social psychology can shape interventions in the criminal justice system. Could recognizing the complicated nature of personality traits lead to more effective rehabilitation programs that not only address criminal behavior but also foster personal growth and reintegration into society?

References

Dolan, E. W. (2024a, September 23). Study reveals how both bright and dark personality traits predict criminality. PsyPost. https://www.psypost.org/study-reveals-how-both-bright-and-dark-personality-traits-predict-criminality/#google_vignette

Behavior analysis is the study and science of human behavior. Unlike the concepts of the mind and will power, behavior analysis studies more tangible things like behavioral health treatment and education that can be improved upon by making behavioral changes. Applied social psychologists with and emphasis of behavior analysis, focus on the influence of environment on behavior and assess individuals with behavioral problems. The question is asked “What in this person’t environment could be affecting their behavior?”

Because this aspect is so important, there was an entire FBI unit created just for this area of expertise called the BAU or Behavioral Analysis Unit. The main aim of the BAU is to deconstruct and analyze the psychology of violent individuals through case studies, criminal profilers, forensic psychology, and forensic science. Agents will also conduct interviews with inmates to gain knowledge and insight into their lives. Often times these sessions are recorded which allows for further analysis of the offenders. This information about effectively assessing and identifying signs that a person is prone to to violent actions and crimes, is invaluable for sharing amongst different levels of law enforcement, military branches, universities, and intelligence based agencies.

Some interesting traits, both in personality and environmental factors, that predispose someone to violent crimes include anti-social values, criminal peers, dysfunctional family, low self control, and substance abuse.

Because people who commit violent crimes often do not just commit them out of the blue, it is important to know the biological and environmental contributors to such acts. Having a behavior analysts are a crucial component in observing and looking for behaviors that often come with violent crimes. It is important to not only taking into consideration innate traits, but also ones from outside of us. Applied social psychologists are in the field working every day to helping improve these conditions and ultimately improving behavior and outcome.

References

Robert M. Brzenchek, (2024) What is Criminal Behavior Analysis? Understanding its Impact, Criminal Justice Blog, American Military University, Oct. 16, 2024

John Hegger, (2015) 6 Traits that lead to Criminal Behavior, Police1, Oct. 16, 2024

The criminal justice process relies heavily on interrogations to furnish vital information. Suspects and witnesses alike may be interrogated. When the police suspect someone has committed a crime, they try to get that person into a room and interrogate them (which usually means asking the person a series of questions). Psychologists who study guilty and innocent behavior have identified what is probably the most well-known interrogation technique used in the United States: the Reid Technique. The Reid Technique asks (or commands) a suspect to “tell the truth.” In this technique, the interrogator accuses the suspect of lying and then tries to make the suspect feel anxious and uncomfortable. Once the suspect appears to be teetering on the edge of panic, the interrogator then gives the suspect a “way out.” …

A need exists to understand better the theories of social influence as they apply to interrogations. One of the main ones, known as Coercive Persuasion Theory, delves into how pressured people are to cooperate and why they might do so, mainly in conditions that are unhealthy for the mind (the “bad cop” part of a good-cop-bad-cop equation). Some work that I came across while doing this research was by a law enforcement officer who now works in a college environment. He does a nice job of breaking down the hows and whys of why human behavior is what it is and why we need to try, as criminal justice professionals, to understand it and work with it as ethically as we can.

Investigations themselves are broader than interrogations; they include the gathering of evidence and gathering of statements of any eyewitness and the reconstruction of the events leading to the crime. Fingerprint, DNA, and digital may all be used where objective evidence may be used to corroborate or refute a witness statement or a suspect’s confession. Altogether such investigative methods constitute a complete strategy of crime solving when used in conjunction with proper interrogations. In any case, its effectiveness is determined by how well the investigators hold to the legal provisions such as the Miranda Rights that warn a suspect of any of the following rights: The right to remain silent.

One idea that is always discussed in criminal justice classes is the Cognitive Interview Technique, the opposite of the accusatory Reid Technique. Cognitive interview was developed contrary to gross concerns of false confessions and it is aimed at improving the recall of the witnesses and the suspects without accessing constructive prompts. This method is based upon the tenets of cognitive psychology and was developed with the specific purpose of getting at the memory of the witness by encouraging the narration of events and by focusing on the different sorts of knotted sensations. While the Reid Technique employs an accusatory approach to force the suspect to tell the truth, the cognitive interview approach is more cooperative and hence would be suited when the probable aim is to obtain the facts of the case without bias.

Therefore, interrogations and investigations are complex procedures that need psychology, ethics, and law system compatibility and cooperation. It becomes apparent that coercion and false confessions remain part of realistic threats that criminal justice officials should consider when applying empirically sound techniques, such as the Technique of Cognitive Interview. Frequent advancement in forensic psychology requires a change in interrogation and investigation techniques and practices that will ensure that justice does not violate the rights of suspects.

Reference: Inbau, F. E., Reid, J. E., Buckley, J. P., & Jayne, B. C. (2013). Criminal interrogation and confessions (5th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.

By the year 2000, there were over 70 correctional “boot camps” set up as an alternative to standard juvenile incarceration (Gruman et al, 2017). What are these boot camps? They were a military style correction method complete with uniforms, drills, PT, chains of command, manual labor and strict discipline (Gruman et al, 2017). While the concept may seem sound on paper, research has shown that these boot camps were largely a failure.

One problem with these boot camps is that they were not therapeutic. While some did offer life skills training and treatment for substance abuse, there was more of an emphasis on discipline and punishment. For this reason, many of the issues these young people were facing were never really addressed. Compared to something like the 1970s “Stay’n Out” program which emphasized clear goals and community building, these boot camps were only temporary solutions (Gruman et al, 2017). If we consider that the instilled discipline relies on the regimented nature of the boot camp, then it isn’t hard to imagine these juveniles returning to crime or antisocial behavior quickly after their time at the camp is over.

According to a paper written by the US Department of Justice Programs, these programs failed due to a number of reasons. Firstly, there was a lack of focus on preparing the offenders for re-entry into society (Wells, 2003). Secondly, there were policies that counteracted the appeal of these camps. Many prison inmates were drawn to boot camps because they offered the potential of a shorter sentence, but with the advent of early release policies these camps lost their appeal (Wells, 2003). And thirdly, boot camps were lacking in standards and coherent structure. This meant programs not rooted in theory or research, but more so rooted in the ideas of local politicians.

The final and possibly most important factor is money. These camps were resource intensive and many localities became tired of supporting them (Wells, 2003). Some prisons found that implementing similar programs seemed to reduce idleness in younger offenders and created a safer environment. While these programs may not have reduced recidivism, perhaps they can still be useful for creating safer prison environments. Boredom will always be an issue in a population of people locked away from the outside world, so perhaps this increased activity will help alleviate some of that boredom. This, in conjunction with therapeutic programs to help inmates prepare for the real world, may keep prisons safer and result in decreased recidivism.

Interestingly, there are still versions of these camps today. One of these I found online is called the “New Hope Wilderness Camp” which describes itself as a Christian tough-love camp designed to help troubled children ages 11-20 years old. I personally can’t imagine who in their right mind would send their kids to one of these, let alone pay for it, but apparently there is still a market for this sort of thing.

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.

Wells, D. T. (2003). Boot Camps: Mixed Results. Office of Justice Programs. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/249035.pdf

Tough love camps for troubled kids. Teen Boot Camps. (2020, September 8). https://teenbootcamps.org/boot-camps/tough-love-camps-for-troubled-kids/

Our judicial system is so corrupt in so many ways and it has been like this for years. This is from traffic stops all the way until court rooms and sentencing. This will and has always been an issue. Our system never changes and is never fair. I think that our system will stay the same and no major changes will ever occur for the better.
In an article I read it states and talks about how our system has failed us all. It states how people in high powers do not get the same treatment as the rest of us do. Like the president for example. If the president is caught doing wrong doings, they use their power of being president in order to get out of whatever they may have done. How does it make our judicial system fair? It never will and never does. How come richer people seem to get away with more stuff than middle- or lower-class individuals?
The system needs to be changed and needs to be done soon. Over so many years people have been convicted for crimes they did not commit and still to this day sit in the jail walls rotting even though they are actually innocent. What happened to innocent until proven guilty? There is so much that we need to do more than taking some pieces of evidence that could have been planted of someone to get framed. Maybe we need to upgrade our technology systems or have better training etc.
It is a sad topic to talk about because I could never imagine myself going into a court room trying to beat a case I did not commit. If there is any evidence leading up to make it seem or portray that it was me who did a particular crime you already have the mindset of sitting in that court room knowing there is nothing you can do or say to not serve time. That is very horrible and tragic. There needs to be something done and I hope one day it is changed to be fair for everyone.
Greenberg, Karen J. “The American Justice System Has Failed Us All.” The Nation, 13 May 2022, www.thenation.com/article/politics/justice-america-courts/.

Bruce Tuckman was a psychological researcher who created the theory of what is referred to as the “Tuckman’s notion of developmental stages.” According to Tuckman, a group of people working together go through stages or phases that will lead them eventually in engaging efficiently in groups’ tasks and activities. Tuckman’s theory applies to all teams, whether it be a sports team or a school group project. Tuckman’s notion of developmental stages explains the dynamics between the group members, positive and negative, and how it impacts the overall development of the group, beneficial or detrimental.

The Tuckman theory is made up of five stages. The first stage is called the forming stage. This stage is the process of how to structure the team in a way that it includes each member. This stage consists of uncertainty and politeness. To avoid any misunderstanding or conflict, the team members strive for approval from one another, especially the assigned leader. The second stage is called the storming stage. This is when interpersonal problems arise. As the team members become more comfortable with each other, they also start expressing discontentment or disbelief. They become more assertive, which may threaten the designed leader. The third stage is called the norming stage. Because of the conflicts that arose, the team members find new ways to avoid disagreements with one another, so therefore they start discovering each others’ skills and strengths, and then overall trusting one another. The fourth stage is called the performing stage. The roles of the team members are more defined. The team’s structure is more organized, and so therefore the team members are overall satisfied. The final stage is called the adjourning stage. This happens when one or more team members have to leave, and so the team must learn to adjust to this significant change.

The representativeness heuristic is a psychological phenomenon or mental shortcut that occurs when an individual perceives a person, object, or event to belong in a particular category by comparing to seemingly similar people, objects, or events. Everyone experiences many daily occurrences that applies to the this. For example, someone meets a couple that consists of a conventionally attractive woman and an unconventionally attractive man. Would that person assume that the man is probably wealthy, and if that is not true, would they be surprised? And also, wouldn’t it be typically shocking to meet an ethnically Irish person that can only speak Mandarin because they grew up in China, or hear news about tornadoes happening in regions other than the Midwest? To simply explain, the representativeness heuristic is just the tendency to “judge the book by its cover.”

Imagine a situation where you started working in an elementary school as a classroom assistant. Naturally, you start observing your environment and the people around you. You feel nervous and excited at the same time. You feel uncertain about your co-workers. And then, you start making assumptions, and so do they. The teacher in your class tells you that there is one paraprofessional who has been working in the school for many years, and so you assume that that is the paraprofessional who knows and interacts with almost every staff member, and is familiar with a good number of students in the school. You assume this as well on the basis of the stories she tells about the previous students she worked with. Also, your co-workers are probably making assumptions about you. Your bright-eyed eagerness might signal to them your naivete and inexperience, which would possibly make them feel either excited to work with you or concerned for you. All of these assumptions you are making about each other will impact every single interaction you will have with one another. Right now, you are at the forming stage–figuring out the system of the group and them figuring you out, which leads to the uncertainties you are all thinking about one another, and your initial polite, awkward interactions as well. And as you continue to work there, you will all continue to form your perceptions of one another, which will all lead to what Tuckman phase your team will be in.

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications

Irving Janis (1983) was the first to introduce groupthink, a flawed decision-making process that occurs when strong pressures for consensus among group members lead to the dismissal of critical evaluation and alternative viewpoints (Gruman et al., 2016). This phenomenon often results in poor decisions as members prioritize group harmony above thorough analysis (Gruman et al., 2016). Antecedent conditions contributing to groupthink include high cohesiveness, directive leadership, high stress, isolation from outside opinions, and exaggerated collective efficacy (Gruman et al., 2016).

Groupthink is a dangerous concept and has been attributed to many famous catastrophes including the Challenger space shuttle disaster, the U.S.’s unpreparedness before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Kennedy administration’s failed Bay of Pigs invasion, the disastrous U.S. invasion of Iraq, and even the Great Recession of 2008 when the U.S. economy was near collapse (Wu, 2024). In all these situations, conformity and the silencing of differing views led to horrible consequences. For example, in the Challenger disaster, despite warnings about the shuttle’s faulty O-ring by engineers, the pressure to comply with the preplanned launch date won out  (Wu, 2024). Just 73 seconds after liftoff, the shuttle exploded, killing all seven crewmembers (Howell, 2022).

Te Wu, a professor at Montclair State University, is rethinking the concept of groupthink by highlighting its beneficial aspects (Wi, 2024). He believes it is especially useful in complex, urgent, and high-stake project environments, in which the time required for complex group deliberation on possible options may be infeasible (Wu, 2024). Wu (2024) provides five potential positive applications of groupthink:

1. Building a Unified Vision: Groupthink helps create enthusiasm and a shared understanding of project objectives during early stages, fostering team commitment and productivity (Wu, 2024).
2. Enhancing Group Cohesion: In time-restricted projects, groupthink facilitates quick consensus and decision-making, allowing teams to act quickly, therefore leading to high performance (Wu, 2024).
3. Strengthening Decision Confidence: Consensus from groupthink increases the project leaders’ confidence and team morale which can aid during project initiation when direction may be unclear (Wu, 2024).
4. Quick Response to External Pressures: Groupthink allows for rapid unification in response to external threats or opportunities which is essential in complex projects that require significant behavioral changes (Wu, 2024).
5. Reinforcing Team Culture and Values: Groupthink can strengthen team culture by promoting consistent decision-making and problem-solving approaches, guided by well-documented project management plans (Wu, 2024).

Wu states that despite the possible upsides of groupthink, the cost of achieving unified visions should not be at the expense of demotivating team members or dismissing differing ideas (Wu, 2024). He recommends a balanced environment that values diverse perspectives but leverages collective agreement to not only mitigate the risks of groupthink but also enhance project outcomes (Wu, 2024).

Despite the greatly negative connotations associated with groupthink, do you think there can be positive outcomes from the effect? Can a balance really be found where you can understand groupthink enough to actually leverage it?

References

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE Publications, Incorporated.

As you might suspect, there are a lot of pluses to working within a group, but there are minuses to it as well. I want to delve deeper into these complexities and their processes and which is of greater benefit in certain situations.

According to the Social Facilitation Model (Robert Zajonc), there seems to be certain process that contribues to either group loss or group gain. According to this model, just the presence of having others around us produces arousal, which then increases the likelyhood of a dominent response occuring (dominent response being the action that we are most likely to emit in any given situation.). If the dominent response is correct, then the task at hand will be performed better, and if it is not, the task will be performed more poorly. According to this theory, the mere presence of others can either increase or decrease performance. If a task at hand is one that is practiced often and well known, then the outcomes success odds increase. However, if this is a task that the person is still acquiring, the arousal can hinder us and cause the outcome performance to be worse. How well versed we are in our skills can be a deciding factor in whether or not there will be individual gains that can or cannot contribute to a group.

Something called process gain is when people in groups perform better individually than they would alone. A reason for this is often a motivating factor caused by other people’s presence within the group. Process loss would be a term for its opposite. Contributing factors towards process loss would be difficulties in motivation and coordination, and also groupthink. Loafing is a common phenomenon where certain members do more work than others. Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group is made up of members who may be competent at their work, but when in a group cave to conformity pressures, making less quality decisions.

     I’m sure a lot of us, in our every day work situations, see the pros and cons to working in groups. While an individual may have a lot of great ideas, implimenting these ideas most often times requires a lot of people. Unless, a task only requires a single person to execute, it is important to know what can increase process gain and what can cause process loss in order for us to be more efficient and productive.

References

Principles of Social Psychology, 2015, University of Minnesota, Ch. 11.2 Group Processes, The Pluses and Minuses of Working Together, 2024

As with any endeavor, success in sports hinges on teamwork. This often involves a coach and an athlete trying to come up with plans, encourage each other, and overcome obstacles. Unfortunately, this is the common psychology that people who work in groups tend to fall in when it comes to groups coming together. Group polarization is where the members of a group engage in the more extreme views or the more extreme behaviors that emerged in the discussion or interaction as opposed to the original beliefs before the discussion or interaction. When looking at the boundaries of sports teams, group polarization will affect the way decisions are made, how the squad behaves, and the results of the games. This particular blog seeks to illustrate how group polarization influences sports team performance through its astute manifestations.

In sports teams, group polarization occurs in different ways, which in most cases occur in tactical discussions, for instance during training. A case in point is given in this scenario: as players debate over game strategies, slight supporters of the aggressive play style before going into discussion may become aggressive supporters of the play style after the discussion. This shared reinforcement can also result in the team implementing strategies that, at first glance, would look like a step too far or are untried. Likewise, the opposite picture may result: where initial deliberations suggest a negative sentiment in support of a specific course of action, the team may manage to replicate defensiveness or defensiveness in collective action. These changes could have dramatic consequences on the team’s functioning and their preparedness for the contest by affecting every single thing, from the type and nature of the play to the mindset on the field.

Such an instance can also be observed in major competitions and championship runs where the desire to win reinforces the belief already present among group members. At critical junctures, should some of the team members verbalize their fears of losing or being humiliated, it ironically may raise the level of caution in the team as a whole. When players at a site begin to group, there is a tendency to sulk and puff targeting action without keeping players on the edge. On the other hand, in the championship, where players feel omnipotent, engagement in discussion leads the risk-taking tendency to a pathological level because of excessive self-appraisal.

In relation to the issue disturbance posed by group polarization, there is some particular strategy that would allow teams to engage and consider broader points of view in their discussions. Another measure is that coaches can make players feel assured of giving opposing views without being ostracized. Thus, for example, where there is slow pace in decision making, when devising tactics or selecting a strategy, the risk may be underappreciated. . Furthermore, this organizational decision approach can assist the athletes in addressing issues from various viewpoints and preventing go away where team strategies become too polarized or overly risky.

To sum up, although it is fundamental for teams in sports contexts to operate as fans of the game and its practitioners, acknowledging group polarization is equally important to any coach and even the players themselves. Teams would then purposely attempt to moderate or balance the strategies they choose to avoid these extremes, whether they come from risky discussions or banish discussions at all. The bottom line is that creating a safe environment with open in-house communication and equal participation addresses polarization concerns and leads to better decision-making, hence better performance on the pitch.

Isenberg, D. J. & Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration. (1986). Group Polarization: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis. In Journal of Personally and Social Psychology (Vol. 50, Issue 6, pp. 1141–1142) [Journal-article]. American Psychological Association, Inc. 

Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems. In SAGE Publications, Inc. eBooks. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591. 

Some of us may consider history to be a boring subject, but everything about who we are, who our families are, our friends, and our fellow human beings, is a culmination of a long chain of events that pushed and pulled people and groups of people in one direction or another. One small event centuries ago can have a huge snowballing impact on the events of today. Today many live in the shadow of imperialism, slavery and persecution. These things can partially explain relations between races, religious groups and countries. The history is complex and often is written by the victor. Some stories may have multiple versions, but the impact that these stories have today cannot be disputed.

For example, every year we celebrate Columbus Day. In school we learn about Columbus’ arrival to the Caribbean as being peaceful and equitable, but it was anything but. The Spaniards murdered and enslaved the native people rather quickly (Zinn, 1980). In “A People’s History of the United States”, the author describes how the Spaniards became more and more arrogant with each day, and even began refusing to walk anywhere, instead riding the backs of native slaves. Instead of the romantic explorer we learn about, Columbus was heavily involved in forcing the natives to mine for gold so that he had something to show the King for his expensive expedition (Zinn, 1980).

This relationship has carried through the ages, and this feeling of superiority over the natives carried into the history of our own country. The genocide of American Indians was ruthless and thorough. It was a story of broken treaties, moving boundaries and atrocities. Many schools have begun to touch on these subjects, but in some they are ignored entirely.

It isn’t only the distasteful parts of US history that are ignored. 31 states don’t require the teaching of Holocaust history in schools, a topic which many would agree is critical education for understanding the consequences of institutional discrimination (Karimi, 2021). If we are neglecting such huge moments in history, then we are not likely touching on nuanced stories like the arrival of Columbus. We may not like hearing these stories, but if we don’t, then we may not understand why we are where we are. This denial allows us to ignore modern issues, and as is often said, history repeats itself.

References

Zinn, H. (2003). A people’s history of the United States: 1492-2001 (New edition).   HarperCollins

Karimi, F. (2021, May 29). 31 states don’t require schools to teach about the Holocaust. some laws are changing that. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/29/us/holocaust-marjorie-taylor-greene-states-trnd/index.html

Dealing with Tuckman’s notion of teamwork and behavior we have learned that it involves a few different ideas. The first idea is forming. The second idea is storming followed then by norming. Lastly the last idea relates to performing the idea.

In an article I found titled, “The agile guide to winning at team development,” helped understand the ideas the Tuckman used for his notion of behavior and teamwork. Forming is the first step which involves coming together and figuring out what the start of the goal is going to be. The next step follows storming. In this idea you hope that your team understands the goal and what needs to be done to acquire it. Sometimes it is said to be the hardest step because there can be complications that need to be worked out.

In the next step known as norming, is to remove anything that is going to interfere with the goal in mind. This can be from complications or even issues with other teammates that can result in any error of completion. The next goal is performing. In this step this is the last step and involves actually following through with everything that was set for a team to reach the final goal in a very strategic way.

Tuckman had a very good set of ways to develop steps to take in order for a team to work properly and efficiently. His idea is still used today. We use it for developmental and changes to undergo a good transition in getting something done or reaching a goal. Like any, we all had to work in teams before and even if we did not realize it, we did use his way in forming, storming, norming, and performing. \

Ferguson, Bernie. “How to Empower Your Team at Every Stage of Development.” Work Life by Atlassian, 8 Feb. 2023, www.atlassian.com/blog/teamwork/navigate-tuckman-stages-of-team-development.

A leader is someone who can influence others to work together and aim for success in a group. Even though there are some differences in leadership styles between individualistic and collectivistic societies, there are universal characteristics as to what makes a good leader such as they should be trustworthy, fair, inspirational, encouraging, positive, motivational, dynamic, a team-builder, and decisive. Also, it has been found that effective leaders in the United States, China and Thailand should be low in neuroticism and high in extraversion personality (Dickson, 2012).  

Leaders in collectivist cultures tend to gain their leadership role through family connections. They value harmony in the group and use indirect communication so as to not hurt a person’s feelings. These leaders speak the truth to show they are trustworthy. They put the group before their personal interests. They have integrity and work beside those who make up the group to learn about them and show that they care, that they listen and are patient, genuine, and they try to understand others (Campion, 2019). Leaders of collectivist societies are not seen as responsible for the entire success of a group or organization, but they are seen as responsible for failure. For example, the leader of the Japanese company TEPCO felt responsible for the nuclear accident that occurred after the earthquake and tsunami hit Japan in 2011 even though they had no direct influence, so they resigned from their position (Dickson, 2012). The people who make up the group are very careful to share ideas as it can be seen as “showing off” which is not acceptable behavior in collectivist culture (Campion, 2019). 

Leaders in individualist cultures reach their leadership status by working hard to achieve their goals and taking action, and accomplishment with their work and through their performance evaluations. They are confident with their path and do not follow norms if they see it as a roadblock to where they are going. These leaders tend to put their personal interests before the group they lead (Campion, 2019).  Leaders in individualist societies are seen as the cause for success in a group or organization but are not seen as responsible for failure. For example, after the devastating oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, the CEO of BP eventually resigned but did not take responsibility for the spill (Dickson, 2012).  

In conclusion, although there are some differences in leadership styles and characteristics between those of individualistic and collectivistic societies, universally both societies feel it is important for a leader to be trustworthy, fair, decisive and a team-builder.  

 References: 

Marcus W. Dickson, Nathalie Castaño, Asiyat Magomaeva, Deanne N. Den Hartog, Conceptualizing leadership across cultures, Journal of World Business, Volume 47, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 483-492. Conceptualizing leadership across cultures – ScienceDirect (psu.edu) 

Campion, L.L., Wang, C.X. Collectivism and Individualism: the Differentiation of Leadership. TechTrends 63, 353–356 (2019). Collectivism and Individualism: the Differentiation of Leadership | TechTrends (psu.edu) 

Power is one of the cardinal dimensions of social psychology in understanding the mechanisms by which individuals impose their will on, and control the behavior of, others. One way of grasping the dynamics of power is with the use of a metaphoric model of power. In this model, power is viewed as somewhat a type of force exercised over others, like an object being pushed or pulled. This model highlights the relational character of power-it exists in organic relationship between at least two parties: the formerly powerful and the latter whose power has been used against him/her. In such a view-power is not a property-like trait but rather one that is manifest in social interaction. In explaining the working of power relationships, one could perhaps look to the theory of the five bases of power devised by French and Raven in 1959, which lucidly explains the everyday dynamics of influence.

These bases of power- legitimate, reward, coercive, expert, and referent power- show different ways in which individuals can influence others. Each base takes into consideration relations vis-a-vis the power holder and subordinates and how they react in specific contexts. Within this understanding of power bases, there is a diversity of uses of power in all social and interpersonal relationships in our daily lives, personal and business. This is especially true in leadership and managerial settings.

Legitimate power originates from a formal position or role within an organization or social structure. For example, a manager in a workplace or a teacher in a school has a legitimate power owing to his or her position. Exercise of this particular form of power usually requires subordinates to recognize and accept the authority attached to a role. Though widely accepted, the power can be limited by the sphere of authority-when the pertained role ceases to function, the power becomes ineffective. This is highly relevant within the field of organizational behavior because many people comply with directives just because of the status or title that the person giving the order holds.

Reward and Coercive Power are essentially opposite sides of the same coin. Reward power draws its strength from the ability to offer positive incentives. Coercive power derives from being able to impose punishment. Both reward and coercive power are extrinsic motivators, which means they influence behavior through external rewards. They may be effective in the short run, but excessive reliance on such power breeds resentment and thus undermines intrinsic motivation, which is a central theme of self-determination theory.

Expert Power originates in specialized knowledge or skills that others value. For instance, a programmer having advanced coding knowledge in coding is bestowed expert power, as this person is relied on to get the appropriate ideas for solving complicated tasks. Unlike legitimate power, rooted in role occupantship, expert power stems from perceived competence, meaning it may sometimes exist outside formalized hierarchies. Such power creates respect and admiration and engenders voluntary compliance rather than compelled obedience. However, this kind of power is limited to domains in which the expert can exercise proficiency.

In sum, considering the five bases of power not only makes us more mindful of how influence is exercised but also gives us specific tactics for how to react. In the case of individuals in positions of power, for instance, we can be aware of the power bases they are using and identify strategies that will build or maintain our relationships with them based on this information. Overall, the organizational power model provides us with an extensive lens into the tangled web of power that operates within and around us. By using the concept in this way, we can understand the non-obvious forces at work in our relationships.

References:

French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.), Studies in Social Power (pp. 150-167). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.