As parents, we have many hopes and aspirations for our children. We want to protect them from the dangers of the world, mitigate sadness and pain, and help them grow into healthy and happy individuals. The preteen and teen years can be particularly challenging, as adolescents experience rapid changes in their bodies, cognitive processes, and social structures (Arnett, 2017b). Adolescence is a vulnerable period for mental and emotional health, with an increased onset of depression, anxiety, and other mental health disorders during this developmental period (Solmi et al., 2022). The rates of adolescent depression nearly doubled from 2009 to 2019, indicating the importance of addressing and preventing mental health problems in preteens and teens, particularly as adolescent-onset depression is likely to recur and result in more negative outcomes that can persist into adulthood (Wilson & Dumornay, 2022). As parents, it can be heartbreaking to watch your child socially withdraw, become more irritable, have changes in sleep or appetite, and no longer enjoy activities they once loved. Experiencing several negative events within a period of time can increase susceptibility for developing a depressive episode, particularly if the person feels hopeless and powerless to change their situation.
According to the hopelessness theory of depression (HTD), the combination of a vulnerable individual plus negative environmental circumstances increases the likelihood of depression (Gruman et al., 2017, p.109). A vulnerable person is one who tends to have pessimistic explanations for negative events in their life, typically assuming that the adverse conditions are long-lasting or stable (rather than fleeting or unstable) and global rather than specific. For example, if a friend doesn’t come to an adolescent’s birthday party, a pessimistic explanation would be that the friend no longer likes them and won’t want to hang out with them anymore. A more realistic explanation would be that the friend had other plans or obligations, but would love to celebrate or hang out with them on a different day. Experiencing several such events and assigning pessimistic explanations, particularly when one interprets the root causes to be stable and global in nature, may result in the development of a depressive state. If the same adolescent missed out on having lunch with their friends and didn’t get to sit with their friends at a pep rally, they may begin to think that they are unlikable and will no longer have any friends. This negative, anticipatory cognition contributes to feelings of hopelessness and depression.
As parents, caregivers, and teachers, is there anything we can do to help protect our teens against depression? As Gruman et al. note, “It is not so much what happens to you that is important; rather it is how you perceive it” (2017, p. 107). One approach to protect adolescents against depression is to help them foster a healthier mindset. The HTD suggests that recovery from, and even prevention of, depression occurs through increasing hopefulness (Needles & Abramson, 1990). As parents, we can promote hopefulness by encouraging an enhancing attributional style from a young age. This attributional style is the opposite of a pessimistic style: it encourages explaining the positive events in our lives as due to global, stable circumstances (Gruman et al., 2017, p. 114). Subsequent work suggests that combining this approach for positive events, along with attributing negative events to unstable and specific root causes, may be even more effective in reducing the risk of depressive episodes (Voelz et al., 2003). We can model these types of attributional styles for our children from a young age so that this type of thinking is more likely to become second-nature for them. If a friend cannot attend a party, we can say “That’s too bad, I know we’ll miss seeing them there. But it will be great to see them next time!” When they get a good grade on an assignment, we can say “That’s fantastic, you worked so hard on that! I’m really proud of you.” Narrating similar explanations for our own wins and misfortunes are additional opportunities to show them how to interpret situations in healthy ways.
Another strategy for increasing hopefulness, according to the HTD, is through modifying the social environment and everyday experiences to increase the frequency of positive life events (Needles & Abramson, 1990). For a child, this may look like giving them age-appropriate chores and tasks to build confidence, playing games that they will have opportunities to win (and modeling graceful losses and wins for them), and even hiding small trinkets for them to “find.” For an adolescent, age-appropriate chores and tasks are still valuable and can foster a sense of responsibility and self-efficacy. In terms of school and sports, celebrating their accomplishments and commiserating with them on their setbacks, while helping them gain or maintain perspective in the grand scheme of things, can have a positive impact. We can also advise teens on setting reasonable, achievable goals to help them build confidence and work towards independence. Encouraging an environment of open communication and emotional support is also critical, perhaps even more so during adolescence (Arnett, 2017a).
While the HTD approach isn’t an absolute guarantee that an adolescent won’t become depressed, these are well-supported strategies for reducing the likelihood of depressive episodes and for improving recovery. An intervention developed by Gillham et al. (2007), the Penn Resiliency Program, successfully helped middle school students, considered at-risk for developing depression, have fewer depressive symptoms through cognitive restructuring (improved explanatory styles) and problem-solving skills (e.g., emotional regulation, time management, and assertiveness). Remarkably, these positive effects lasted for at least 3 years after the program ended, suggesting that the intervention had a significant impact on shaping the adolescents’ way of thinking about adversity and building important life management skills. Encouraging appropriate attributional styles in our children and adolescents, and providing them with opportunities to build self-confidence and a sense of agency, may promote better mental health and resilience, so that they develop positive self-esteem and grow to be healthy, more well-adjusted individuals.
References
Arnett, J. J. (2017a). Family Relationships. In: Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood (6th Ed.). Pearson.
Arnett, J. J. (2017b). Introduction. In: Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood (6th Ed.). Pearson.
Gillham, J. E., Reivich, K. J., Freres, D. R., Chaplin, T. M., Shatte, A. J., Samuels, B. . . . Seliman, M. E. (2007). School-based prevention of depressive symptoms: A randomized controlled study of the effectiveness and specificity of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75: 9-19. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.75.1.9
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applying social psychology to clinical and counseling psychology. In: Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3rd Ed.). SAGE.
Needles, D. J. & Abramson, L. Y. (1990). Positive life events, attributional style, and hopefulness: Testing a model of recovery from depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99: 156-165. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0021-843X.99.2.156
Solmi, M., Radua, J., Olivola, M., Croce, E., Soardo, L., de Pablo, G. S., Shin, J. I., Kirkbride, J. B., Jones, P., Kim, J. H., Kim, J. Y., Carvalho, A. F., Seeman, M. V., Correll, C. U., & Fusar-Poli, P. (2022). Age at onset of mental disorders worldwide: Large-scale meta-analysis of 192 epidemiological studies. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(1): 281-295. doi: 10.1038/s41380-021-01161-7
Voelz, Z. R., Haeffel, G. J., Joiner, T. E., & Wagner, K. D. (2003). Reducing hopelessness: The interaction of enhancing and depressogenic attributional styles for positive and negative life events among youth psychiatric inpatients. Behavior Research and Therapy, 41: 1183-1198. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00030-5
Wilson, S. & Dumornay, N. M. (2022). Rising rates of adolescent depression in the United States: Challenges and opportunities in the 2020s. Journal of Adolescent Health, 70(3): 354-355. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.12.003
Archives
08
Apr 24
The Proximity Principle: Identifying the Dual Nature of Relationships Formed
Research indicates that proximity has a significant impact on who people interact and build connections with most, even though it often works in an unconscious way. It also means that you are more likely to build ties with people who work and live in the same city.
For example, relationships are more likely to develop between people who physically sit closer to each other in an office or classroom than between people who sit farther apart. Because of this, people are probably more likely to become friends with their coworker in the next cubicle or their lab partner at school than they are with random strangers (Finkel & Baumeister, 2010).
Even though relationships are more likely to be formed between people who are physically closer to them, some studies indicate that those relationships aren’t necessarily positive ones. One study, for instance, discovered that people are more prone to despise those who live nearby ( Ebbesen, Kjos, Konecni, 1976). Although it has also been demonstrated that physical closeness affects friendships, frequent in-person interactions were necessary for friendships to thrive. On the other hand, hostility persisted despite the fact that people who lived near to one another did not often interact in person.
Therefore, unwanted conduct exhibited by those nearby can result in negative interpersonal connections, just as positive interactions with those in close proximity to one another can lead to positive interpersonal relationships, either way demonstrating the proximity principle .
Ebbesen E, Kjos G, Konečni V. Spatial ecology: Its effects on the choice of friends and enemies. J Exp Soc Psychol. 1976;12(6):505-518. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(76)90030-5
Finkel EJ, Baumeister RF. Attraction and Rejection. In: Baumeister RF, Finkel EJ, ed. Advanced Social Psychology: The State Of The Science. 1st ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2010:419-459.
03
Mar 24
Is Eyewitness Testimony Trustworthy?
An account provided by individuals of an event they have personally observed, is referred to as eyewitness testimony in legal terminology. They might be asked to explain a robbery trial or a traffic accident that they witnessed, for instance. This covers information on the crime scene, the identity of the offenders, etc. Research on eyewitness testimony is crucial for understanding human memory and cognitive psychology. Eyewitness testimony is typically given careful consideration by juries, who view it as a trustworthy source of information. However, studies in this field have shown that a variety of psychological factors can influence eyewitness testimony, none more so than Reconstructive Memory.
Knowledge of the validity of eyewitness testimony requires a knowledge of, Frederic Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory, which claimed that recall is open to individual interpretation based on taught or cultural norms and values, as well as how we view the world.
Individuals organize information according to what makes the most sense to them. We try to fit information into schemas, which are ways of organizing data, to make sense of it. Schemas are conceptual “units” of information that correlate to individuals, things, or circumstances that are encountered often. Prejudice and social values may have an influence on these schemas. Thus, schemas have the power to skew new or unintentionally “unacceptable” information to make it “fit in” with our preexisting knowledge or schemas. Consequently, this may lead to eyewitness testimony that is not trustworthy.
The legal community, law enforcement, and psychologists have collaborated to try and improve the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony. Eyewitness memory significantly improved when researchers Geiselman, Fisher, MacKinnon, and Holland used an interviewing technique they called the Cognitive interview (CI). The strategy aims to inform witnesses of all the circumstances surrounding a crime without fabricating information or creating false memories. This method involves the interviewer getting to know the witness before posing any questions. The witness is then given the opportunity to provide an unrestricted account of what happened. The interviewer then probes further to get further details from the witness and reassures them that it’s okay to express uncertainty and move on. This method leads the witness, instead of following a strict expectation that the witness must recall every detail.
Correct implementation of the cognitive interview results in increased efficiency and accuracy of eyewitness testimony without the generation of extra false information.
References
Bartlett, F.C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Geiselman, R.; Fisher, Ronald; MacKinnon, David; Holland, Heidi (1986). “Enhancement of eyewitness memory with the cognitive interview”. American Journal of Psychology. 99 (3): 385–401
Ghetti, S.; Goodman, G. S.; Schaaf, J. M.; Qin, J. (2004). “Issues In Eyewitness Testimony”. In O’Donohue, W. T.; Levensky, E. R. (eds.). Handbook of Forensic Psychology. San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. p. 532.
Wells, G. L.; Memon, A.; Penrod, S. D. (2006). “Eyewitness Evidence: Improving Its Probative Value”. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 7 (2): 45–75.
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Nov 22
Can Psychology Change Our Society?
After the emergence of the field of psychology, the science of behavior and mental processes, psychologists (Pennsylvania State University, 2022) have discovered much about why and what causes us to behave in a certain way. Even though we cannot say that psychology explains everything we do as human beings, several psychological discoveries have significantly changed our society. Psychological findings have allowed us to think differently about mental illnesses by, for example, transforming our views of mental disorders from behaviors caused by demonic possessions to diagnosable medical conditions. As such, various psychological findings have improved our understanding of human behaviors and our ability to solve associated problems. Psychologists often attempt to apply their skills and knowledge to social concerns to find practical solutions and improvements. Participatory action research (PAR)—a process of research, education, and action—is an effective approach for psychologists to bring about positive social change by using their skills and training while contributing to knowledge generation within the field (Hall, 1981). Let us review how psychologists use PAR to bring about positive social change by discussing the basic guidelines of PAR, its real-life implementation, and its benefits over other research methods.
Despite the diversity within the theoretical bases of PAR, Budd Hall claimed that PAR generally follows three basic guidelines (1981). First, he stated that PAR originates and has been successful with traditionally oppressed populations, such as groups of Indigenous people, immigrants, labor organizations, and women’s groups. Second, PAR aims to achieve positive social change by addressing specific community concerns and the causes of oppression. Third, PAR is an all-in-one process of research, education, and action that allows all participants to contribute their skills and knowledge and to learn and transform through research.
As many previous PAR studies have been successful, PAR has begun to gain ground in the field of psychology. Susan Yeich and Ralph Levine (1992) is one such example of a successful PAR study, as it established a homeless persons’ union in East Lensing, Michigan. The research included a variety of activities, including speaking in university classes, presenting at workshops, meetings with politicians, registering homeless people to vote, organizing public demonstrations, receiving media attention, fundraising, and networking, and recruiting union members. At the same time, the research addressed the fundamental causes of homelessness in the community and examined further problems that homelessness can bring to our society.
Even though PAR uses methodologies similar to traditional social science research, such as community questionnaires and interviews, it has distinctive benefits over other research methods. The fundamental difference in PAR is that community members can determine the methods used to employ, carry out the research, and analyze the results by utilizing a variety of approaches outside the field of psychology (Brydon-Miller, 1997). PAR often involves different approaches, such as political action, community meetings, educational camps, and conferences, to bring successful social change (Brydon-Miller, 1997). Moreover, PAR allows psychologists greater involvement and commitment to addressing social issues based on the skills and knowledge of their professions.
Although discoveries in the field of psychology can solve not all social issues, many psychologists aim to make our society a better place by applying their skills and knowledge. However, a single action cannot bring about social change, as individuals who seek change continually face various economic and political obstacles. Participatory action research can be a unique and practical way to bring positive social change because it allows psychologists to apply their knowledge to actions directly and to increase their involvement in and commitment to societal issues.
References
Brydon-Miller, M. (1997). Participatory Action Research: Psychology and Social Change. Journal of Social Issues, 53(4), 657–666.
Hall, B. (198I). Participatory research, popular knowledge and power: A personal reflection. Convergence, /4(3), 6 1 7.
Pennslyvania State University. (2022). Chapter 1 What is Psychology? Lecture notes.
Yeich, S.,& Levine, R. (1992). Participatory research’s contribution to a conceptualization of empowerment. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22(24), 189&1908.
10
Nov 22
Do Looks Matter?
It is often said that one’s inner beauty and personality are more important than their physical appearance. Then, is it true that our looks do not matter? The honest answer is that they do matter. Beautiful and physically attractive people are pleasing to look at; however, the importance of physical appearance extends well beyond the pleasant experiences we have when we look at attractive individuals. What makes our looks so important? To answer this question, I will introduce striking findings from previous studies on physical attractiveness that cover the computer-match study, the primary effect, and physical attractiveness stereotypes.
Researchers at the University of Minnesota conducted a study called the computer-match study to ascertain the reasons for dating choices among first-year college students at a Welcome Week dance party (Walster et al., 1966). Several hundred student volunteers were told that a computer would find the best match for each student by collecting their personal data. After they paired up for the party, they were asked to complete the questionnaires to rate themselves and their partners on their self-esteem, the physical attractiveness of their partners, and the similarities between them. When the data was analyzed, the researchers found that the only factor that predicted whether a student wanted to see his or her date again was the partner’s physical attractiveness, not their similarities, the quality of their conversation, or the respondent’s level of self-esteem. This study revealed that looks are more powerful factors of attraction than other desirable characteristics of individuals.
It is clear that our looks do matter, but why do they mater? When we first meet a person, we unconsciously judge that person to a certain extent by their looks, as it is impossible to know their other qualities, such as personality, at first sight. This phenomenon may occur due to the primary effect, which is the tendency to be influenced and recall information presented first rather than information presented later (Gruman et al., 2017). Usually, physical appearance is the first piece of information that is gleaned about a person we have just met; thus, according to this theory, we are more likely to be influenced by and recall a person’s looks. This may explain why people often say that one’s first impression is important in dates or meetings.
With the importance of pleasant feelings caused by seeing attractive people having been established, additional studies found that beautiful people were also judged to be better at other qualities than unattractive people. Dion et al. (1972) found that physically attractive people are generally expected to be better; attractive people are assumed to be more sensitive, sexually responsive, interesting, and friendly than those who are unattractive. Another study also found that attractive people are considered positively; they are found to have wider social appeal, interpersonal and occupational competence, or adjustment, purely based on their physical looks, than unattractive people (Langlois et al., 2000). These findings do not mean that attractive people are generally good at almost every aspect of life, but they are simply assumed to have better qualities because of existing biases. These assumptions arise from the physical attractiveness stereotype, which is the general expectancy that physically attractive people have better and positive qualities while unattractive people have negative qualities.
We all know that humans and other animals are naturally born with high preferences for beauty (Little et al., 2011). For example, even a baby recognizes a pretty face or other things that are beautiful or not. This post aimed to explain why our looks matter by introducing previous scientific findings on physical attractiveness, including studies on the primary effect and the physical attractiveness stereotype, as well as the computer-match study. These interesting findings are somewhat disappointing in that they confirm that physical appearance has a stronger influence than other attributes. Still, instead of sabotaging ourselves, it is essential to remember that our physical attractiveness is determined by a variety of factors other than facial structure. For instance, non-verbal factors, such as posture, facial expression, hair or fashion style, attitude, and personality, make up our attractiveness and make each of us unique and beautiful.
References
Dion, K. K., Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. (1972). What is beautiful is good. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 285–290
Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591
Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, A., & Smoot, M. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 390–423
Little, A. C., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2011). Facial attractiveness: evolutionary based research. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences, 366(1571), 1638–1659. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0404
Walster, E., Aronson, V., Abrahams, D., & Rottmann, L. (1966). Importance of physical attractiveness in dating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 508–516
03
Nov 22
Life in Big Cities
Do you prefer to live in a busy city, such as New York, or in a smaller town surrounded by nature? According to the ecological concept of person–environment fit, people have differing opinions on whether they fit better into urban or rural environments. Some individuals prefer to stay and live in big cities, while others prefer quiet suburban areas. I have always preferred to live in large urban centers because they offer better public transportation, career opportunities, and nightlife and entertainment options. However, I cannot deny that a busy city life also brings a significant amount of stress and problems associated with overwhelming crowds, traffic, and noise. Even though city life provides a number of benefits, many studies have suggested that deindividuation, stimulus overload, and bystander effects that occur in city environments can negatively affect individuals’ physical or mental health (Gruman et al., 2017).
A well-known study by Philip Zimbardo (1969) suggested that city environments negatively impact individuals by causing them to become deindividuated (i.e., they lose their sense of personhood). This loss of a sense of self makes people feel less concerned with self-evaluation, responsibility, and self-restraint; furthermore, it increases antisocial behavior. Have you ever noticed that people behave differently in crowds? According to the notion of deindividuation, overwhelming stimulations of city life, such as crowding, lead people to act differently than they would normally act when they are alone (Zimbardo, 1969). For example, a person is likely to follow or mimic the behaviors of a crowd if they are part of a group without reasoning whether the act is right or wrong.
On the other hand, stimulus overload, introduced by Stanly Milgram, provides a psychological explanation for the negative impact of city life on people. Stimulus overload is a state in which our nervous systems are overloaded to the point that we cannot simultaneously react to environmental stimulation, such as crowds, traffic, and noise; thus, we adapt to set priorities and determine where to place more attention (Milgram, 1970). According to Milgram’s theory, city environments cause people to enter a state of stimulus overload, making them devote as little time as possible to obstacles and avoid what is really important in life by leading them to focus on more time-efficiently set priorities. For instance, people living in big cities tend to erect barriers to social interactions, such as withdrawing cash from ATMs, rather than dealing with bank tellers.
Moreover, the bystander effect also explains how our social environments strongly influence individuals’ behaviors. The bystander effect occurs when a large number of people witness an emergency situation in public places and fail to intervene or help others; this commonly occurs in big-city environments (Darley & Latané, 1970). I remember hearing a news report describing an incident in which one person was severely attacked in a public place, but no one in the crowd acted to help the victim. Darley and Latané (1970) explained that the bystander effect occurs in large cities because an individual in a group thinks that he or she will not be blamed for not helping a person who is in danger, since there are almost always many people nearby who might take responsibility for acting in emergency situations.
Although I generally love living in big cities, these previous studies have made me think more carefully about how city environments can negatively affect our behavior to some degree. In addition to the concepts of deindividuation, stimulus overload, and the bystander effect, another study suggests that city living is associated with increased stress and mental illness, such as mood and anxiety disorders and schizophrenia (Yates, 2011). Therefore, further research on the impacts of social environments, specifically on the association between city environments and mental health, is necessary to assess the factors that result in adverse effects on individuals and to find effective intervention strategies for minimizing harm.
References
Darley, J., & Latané, B. (1970). The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? New York, NY: Appleton Century Crofts.
Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591
Milgram, S. (1970). The experience of living in cities. Science, 167, 1461–1468
Yates, D. (2011). The stress of city life. Nat Rev Neurosci 12, 430 https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3079
Zimbardo, P. G. (1969). The human choice: Individuation, reason, and order versus deindividuation, impulse, and chaos. In W. J. Arnold & D. Levine (Eds.), Nebraska symposium on motivation (Vol. 17, pp. 237–307). Lincoln: University of Nebraska
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Oct 22
Why Do You Procrastinate?
Have you ever put off important tasks until the last minute or after the deadline by consistently creating excuses for not finishing them on time? During their college years, most people have experienced delaying assignments or studying for an exam until the very last minute and have ended up staying up all night to meet deadlines. The act of delaying a task or intended course of action until the last minute is referred to as procrastination. According to Joseph Ferrari, author of “Still Procrastinating: The No Regret Guide to Getting It Done,” about 20% of adults in the United States are chronic procrastinators (American Psychological Association, 2010). Piers Steel (2007) estimated that the majority of college students frequently procrastinate their school-related work at least some of the time. While most people know that procrastination is a bad habit that negatively affects daily life, why does a significant portion of the population still procrastinate? Several studies suggest that procrastination actually results from fear of failure, motivational issues, and self-handicapping (Gruman et al., 2017).
Whenever we see others or find ourselves putting tasks off until the last minute, even when there is plenty of time left until the tasks are due, we often think that the delay occurs because of laziness or irresponsibility. I remember repeating bitter words to myself, such as “Stop being lazy!” whenever I delayed the tasks I should have done much earlier. However, studies have shown that people tend to procrastinate because of their fear of failure and the impact that failure has on their self-concept (Gruman et al., 2017). Another study suggested that when people focus more on the outcome of a goal, such as passing an exam, the possible consequences of failing become more vivid, thus escalating the fear of failure. In addition, when the expectation for the completion of a task is high, this fear of failure would likely increase, making us unable to even begin a task by delaying until the last moment.
Another factor that plays a key role in procrastination is motivation, which is deeply related to self-regulating behaviors (Gruman et al., 2017). When someone is motivated to do a particular task, this often becomes effortless and even enjoyable; thus, procrastination may not occur. For example, a child who is motivated to play a video game will not procrastinate this activity while procrastinating on homework assignments because he or she is less motivated to do homework than play video games. Previous research suggests that students who tend to be more intrinsically motivated are better at effectively managing their time and are able to devote their cognitive attention and efforts toward learning (Burnam et al., 2014; Howell & Watson, 2007). Hence, we can assume that people tend to procrastinate on tasks that they are not intrinsically motivated to do in the first place.
Other than the fear of failing and lack of motivation, there is also a common strategy that chronic procrastinators often use, called self-handicapping, which refers to the creation of barriers to successful performance for a task prior to its achievement in order to have an excuse for future failure (Gruman et al., 2017). By doing this, people can blame something other than their own ability to complete a task when facing failure. This strategy does not only reduce the cost of failure; it also emphasizes the value of success when success occurs despite the handicap. For example, a student puts off preparing for an exam because he thinks it is impossible to get a good grade, no matter how hard he studies. By deciding to go out with friends and delaying studying for an exam until the last moment, he can later justify that he failed his exam because he did not have enough time to study instead of harming his academic self-concept.
As you noticed after reading this blog, we do not put things off just because we are lazy; instead, we tend to procrastinate when we want to avoid failure, are not motivated enough to do a specific task, or desire to protect our self-esteem and self-concept through self-handicapping prior to potential failure. We need to understand that there is much complexity in the reasons behind the act of procrastination, which is why we find it challenging to stop procrastinating. It is clear that simply saying, “Stop being lazy! I should stop procrastinating starting today,” may not be an effective method to curb procrastination. Instead, creating environments that emphasize individual effort and mastery of a task rather than actual ability and performance or developing short-term, more easily achievable goals may be more effective at changing procrastination-related behavior.
References
American Psychological Association. The Psychology of Procrastination: Why People Put Off Important Tasks Until the Last Minute. 2010.
Burnam, A., Komarraju, M., Hamel, R., & Nadler, D. R. (2014). Do adaptive perfectionism and self-determined motivation reduce academic procrastination? Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 165–172
Gruman, J., Schneider, F., & Coutts, L. (Eds.) (2017). Applied social psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc, https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071800591
Howell, A. J., & Watson, D. C. (2007). Procrastination: Associations with achievement goal orientation and learning strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 167–178
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2014). How to beat procrastination: The role of goal focus. European Psychologist, 19(2), 132-144. doi:https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000153
Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 65–94
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Oct 22
How do we learn to imitate violence depicted in media?
It is not surprising to find various depictions of physical violence when we turn on television. Many popular TV shows, movies, children’s programs, and video games frequently contain violent scenes such as attacks with a weapon, battles, or murders. Since media has become an essential part of our daily lives and are easily accessible through various devices for personal media consumption, there has been growing concern over the effects of media violence, which has led to extensive research and public attention. The vast majority of research studies consistently show that violent media negatively impacts viewers, making them likelier to increase their aggressive behavior (Bushman, Huesmann, & Whitaker, 2009). How do people become more aggressive by simply watching violent scenes on TV? Bandura (1986, 2009) argued that people learn to imitate violence through the media, which is called social cognitive theory. He introduced four processes that must occur in social cognitive theory: attention, representational, behavioral production, and motivational processes.
The first process indicated in Bandura’s model is attention. People must first pay attention to a specific behavior in order to imitate it. Which particular behaviors usually draw more attention? According to Bandura’s social cognitive theory, people are likely to pay attention to the modeled behaviors depending on how salient and attractive those behaviors are. Notably, violent behaviors portrayed in media, such as TV shows or movies, attract attention because they are usually thrilling, exciting, and salient. For example, violent scenes depicted in action movies, thrillers, and hero movies are popular, and many people find them exciting and fun to watch.
The second step is the representational process, which concerns the remembrance of specific behaviors. Even though these behaviors are exciting and attract attention, it is impossible to imitate them without actually remembering them. When certain behaviors are repeated multiple times, they are likely to be remembered or learned. For example, types of violence that appear more frequently in media become more familiar and likely to be recalled later for most individuals. People learn to imitate behaviors not only by repetition but also by mentally visualizing or rehearsing them, often through fantasies.
The third process outlined in Bandura’s social cognitive theory is the behavioral production process, in which people learn to perform the behaviors they have observed and remembered. This process involves learning to transform observed behaviors into more generalized or novel behaviors. Even though a person might mentally rehearse shooting someone he or she hates, they are unlikely to perform this action in real life. Instead, they are likelier to behave aggressively without actually harming the person whom they hate and to express their feelings in a more socially acceptable way.
Lastly, the final process of learning to imitate behaviors involves motivation. Even though people pay attention to, remember, and learn to perform behaviors into novel behaviors, they do not perform these behaviors if they are not sufficiently motivated. This can be explained by B. F. Skinner’s operant conditioning, which employs rewards and punishments for behavioral learning. This concept suggests that individuals are likely to become motivated to perform behaviors that are rewarded, while punishment discourages the performance of behaviors for which individuals are punished. This explains why people may not perform every type of behavior they see depicted in media; instead, they tend to perform the behaviors they are motivated to perform.
In sum, many research findings consistently support the negative impact of media violence on people. Potter (2003) found that TV violence increases short-term and long-term aggressive behaviors, the tendency to imitate violence, increased fear and desensitization to violence, and greater acceptance of violence. Bandura’s social cognitive theory explains how people actually learn to imitate observed violent behaviors by introducing four major processes: attention, representational, behavioral production, and motivational processes. This demonstrates that media violence can be learned by observation, but it does not mean that people learn to imitate all the behaviors they watch. Instead, people may learn to imitate behaviors that draw attention and are remembered, performed, and motivated to perform.
References
Bushman, B. J., Huesmann, L. R., & Whitaker, J. L. (2009). Violent media effects. In R. L. Nabi & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of media processes and effects (pp. 361–376). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (2009). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant & M. B. Oliver (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 94–124). New York, NY: Routledge
Potter, W. J. (2003). The 11 myths of media violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Staddon JE, Cerutti DT. Operant conditioning. Annu Rev Psychol. 2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124
07
Apr 22
Why not aim high when you are looking for love?
“The matching phenomenon” caught my eye as I was reading this week’s material because my initial reaction was the opposite of the study’s results. According to the textbook, “The matching phenomenon, preferring a long-term partner who is similar to oneself in looks (and other qualities), reduces the chances of either rejection or dissatisfaction.” (Schneider et al., 2016). That is, to my understanding, people tend to act in a risk-averse way as they consider choosing their long-term partners. For example, in Van Straaten’s experiment, participants are more likely to date the confederates who are similar in attractiveness. (2016) I understand that, as study shows, this matching phenomenon is a human behavior tendency in dating. However, I wonder, why not aim high when searching for love? What are the costs and benefits of taking the risk of aiming for mates that are so called “out of your league”?
What are the costs of asking the most attractive girl in your class for a date? The worst outcome is that she rejects you, which is often the case when you aim for the best. Indeed, being rejected is not a pleasant experience, and you might feel embarrassed. But your real journey begins here. After getting rejected, you learn from the experience and seek to improve yourself. You try again, and you approach the most attractive girl in perhaps another class. You keep learning and practicing until one day, you have improved yourself enough that even the most attractive girl is no longer “out of your league”.It is actually a good thing to get rejected because, with the right mindset, you would end up gaining a lot through rejection.
Now, what are the benefits of taking the risk of asking her out? The most attractive girl in your class might say “Yes” to you. You feel great, and you two have a chance to see if it works out for the long term. But let’s say the relationship doesn’t work out, and you go back to square one and start dating again. You still aim for someone who is so called “out of your league”. You could get rejected or accepted. If rejected, you would experience the process I just mentioned in the previous paragraph, and you learn from it and improve yourself. Therefore, an early “yes” might not be as good as you think because it delays your learning process dating-wise. To sum up, you actually benefit less through an early “Yes”.
Here is the recap: what are the costs and benefits of taking the risk of aiming for the most attractive girl? The cost is you could get rejected but you could also gain a lot through the rejection, and the benefit is you get accepted but you miss a chance to gain through rejections. Thus, as rational people, we choose what brings us the most gain, which in this case is to choose people who are more likely to reject us. To put it more bluntly, you will more likely be rejected by the most attractive person than those who are more likely to accept you as a potential mate. If you keep aiming for the top, you will likely keep getting rejected. But you win in the long run by becoming a better person through these rejections! This “always aiming high” mindset works not only in searching for love but in every aspect of a person’s life. A high expectation is a powerful engine that could lead you to a future level that you may initially think is totally “out of your league.”
So, why not aim high?
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3nd ed). Sage.
02
Mar 22
How to get away with murder?
How to get away with murder?
Apparently, be under 14.
I watched the first two episodes of Juvenile Justice on Netflix earlier today, and it made me start thinking about the topic of punishment. This new crime drama tells stories taking place in South Korea’s juvenile criminal justice system. In the first two episodes, a 13 years old teen with schizophrenia was claimed to have killed, mutilated, and dismembered an 8 years old boy. According to a 2019 news article from Korea JoongAngDaily, the English edition of the South Korean national daily newspaper JoongAngIlbo, “Under Korea’s Juvenile Act, the maximum sentence that can be given to minors aged 14 to 18 is 15 years, while children aged 10 to 13 are considered ‘protection cases’ and are exempt from criminal punishment.” It is what the story in Juvenile Justice is supposed to be unfolding. But it turns out this is not the case. But I am not here to talk about the show.
According to B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning theory, people’s behavior is shaped through either rewards or punishment. That is, no matter if you are an adult or a kid, people are encouraged to do things when they get rewards by doing it and avoid behaviors that lead them to punishment. Thus, if a child under 14 kills and receives no punishment, does it mean that society and the law unintentionally encourage such behavior, theoretically? I don’t agree with giving no punishment for rule-breaking, anti-societal actions, especially for minors who are still in the early stages of life-long self-development. Every action should have consequences. Moreover, I very much agree with Cesare Beccaria, the father of modern criminal law and the father of criminal justice, that punishment should be “swift, certain and just”. (Bernard et al., 2016)
Without punishment, a minor could become a monster, especially a kid who comes from a privileged family, because they are much more likely to get away with it. Here is another true story that I heard from a podcast called “Something Was Wrong” (episode: (Molly) Unimaginable Rage), recalled from a kid’s nanny. As you can infer from the episode name, it is a story about rage. This kid named Alex came from a very wealthy American family. He could do whatever he wanted to do without any punishment. He kicked and hit his nanny, shouting to her “you are going to be fired! You have no idea what I am going to do!” He verbally and physically abused the nanny and sabotaged the room whenever he was in a rage. The only “punishment” Alex got was his mother taking him in their luxury car to a poor part of the city . “see how others live” which his mother hoped “could push him to rethink his bad behavior and how lucky he is in this family”. This was the most surreal and dramatic moment in the episode. I cannot imagine how this Alex kid would turn out. Based on his current behavior, it is very likely that sooner or later he will become a serious risk to people around him and the whole society unless he is deterred.
I truly believe that punishment is critical in shaping behaviors for people at any age, but it should not be idle. It should be, as mentioned, swift, certain, and just.
References:
Bernard, T.J., Snipes, J.B, & Gerould, A.L. (2016). Vold’s Theoretical Criminology. 7th Ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199964154.
Girl held for murder, but by law punishment will be light. (n.d.). Retrieved 2 March 2022, from https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2019/12/31/socialAffairs/Girl-held-for-murder-but-by-law-punishment-will-be-light/3072082.html
22
Feb 22
This type of leadership makes people leave
photo taken in Shanghai, China by Jianan Ye
“…information from the social environment (i.e., communication and friendship networks among coworkers) had a significant effect on individuals’ job satisfaction.”— (Schneider et al., 2016)
Before I moved to the U.S., I worked for an Italian suit company based in Shanghai, China, as a writer for their marketing team. In that corporation, I was part of a large team that consisted of a photographer, designers, other field staff, and my team leader. One of my regular assignments was to conduct GQ-style interviews with male guests who were considered successful businessmen in Shanghai who “knows how to choose and wear a suit”. In my role, I first needed to communicate with the interviewee on the phone to get to know him a bit and introduce to him the whole interview process. Then, we would meet in person along with our whole team. When the photographer and designers were taking care of the interviewee’s appearance, I conducted the interview. The interview article I wrote, with photos taken by other team members, would later be posted on the company’s several media platforms.
photo taken in Shanghai, China by Jianan Ye
I admit I loved that job. It was time flexible, well-paid, and I was able to meet many interesting people and hearing their stories. I fulfilled every task I was assigned to on time and customers were happy with my work. However, my job satisfaction at the time was undoubtedly low. It was not the job that bothered me but the team leader.
Our team leader liked to act like a boss, and to flaunt her authority to a quite extreme level. One day, it was at the company’s dinner party, I was completely stunned by her behavior. “Who da hell do you think you are? You do what I told you to do! Got it?” It was loud and rude. She just humiliated one of our colleagues in front of 50 guests. I saw that young, humiliated colleague’s face turned pale. Everyone in the room, including the guests, were looking at her, trying to comprehend what just happened. I was also confused by this type of management or even social interaction. From that moment, I knew that she was not the person that I would want to follow. Eventually, I learned that while she had an excellent public relations background, she was very actually insecure about her limited fashion knowledge, and therefore acted in a way to instill fear in her subordinates in order to appear in charge.
photo taken in Shanghai, China by Jianan Ye
This week, as I learned the term “team cohesion” from the textbook, this old memory came back. Since that incident at the party, the team dynamic changed dramatically. If “team cohesion” existed before the incident, it was gone after that party. It reflects what was depicted in the textbook that “…autocratic leadership (i.e., the coach as leader makes all decisions and refrains from delegating any power) is associated with lower levels of task cohesion.” (Schneider et al., 2016) My old team leader certainly fits into this category of autocratic leadership, and as you can see, it kills the cohesion within the team. As a result, everyone at the team eventually left, and I was the first.
“Hey, dear, my new job is fantastic! I really should have left earlier!” The young photographer, the one who was humiliated by the leader at the party, called me before I left for the U.S., sounding happy.
Reference:
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (Eds.). (2016). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (3nd ed). Sage.
06
Oct 21
Teamwork Makes the Dream Work… right?
When I was a high school freshman, my high school’s band program was known as one of the best programs in the city, if not the state. Not only did it perform incredibly well in state competitions, but it was also a great experience being a part of the band. Students from different sections got along great with one another, and for many of us, our sections felt like family. However, in the years that followed, I noticed that the band felt less cohesive than when I first joined. Students still viewed their own sections as a kind of “family”, but there were fewer interactions between different sections. Also, our performance at competitions slipped downwards, eventually to the point where we usually got eliminated out of finals. What happened? Some of these changes may have resulted from outside factors, like changes in the band directors and students. Nevertheless, a part of me wondered whether the drop in the band’s cohesion caused the drop in the performance. Would we have done better if the band was more unified?
The concept that a team’s cohesion affects their performance would seem to make sense logically. When cohesion is high, team members get along better with one another and are on the same page regarding their shared objectives. This line of reasoning would be consistent with research on sports teams discussed by Gruman, Schneider, & Coutts (2017), which show that cohesion strongly relates to individual performance, individual efforts, and team performance (pg. 137). Team members are more likely to exert more effort when the team gets along well, and they can coordinate well with one another when they are all on the same page. It is tempting to interpret these findings to mean that group cohesion greatly improves how well they get a task done. As they say, teamwork makes the dream work… right?
Unfortunately, improving team performance may not be as simple as getting people to get along. It is important to remember that correlations do not necessarily indicate that causation goes one way or the other. Although it may seem to make more sense for group cohesion to cause performance, it is possible that performance also causes group cohesion. Evidence for this possibility comes from Grieve, Whelan, & Meyers (2000), who found that cohesion has far less impact on performance than performance has on cohesion. A shared victory can be a great experience for people to bond over, while a defeat can leave people feeling bitter and distancing themselves from the team. Further research discussed by Gruman et al. (2017) regarding the cohesion-performance relationship found that cohesion can predict performance just as well as performance can predict cohesion. Regardless of which one causes the other more, the research shows that the relationship between team cohesion and team performance can go both ways, with both of them influencing each other.
So was it the drop in cohesion that doomed my band’s performances? While research shows a strong link between a team’s cohesion and performance, it also suggests the causality is bidirectional. My band’s performance may have suffered from a decrease in cohesion, but that drop in performance may have also caused cohesion to suffer as well. Thinking back, this would make sense, as I recall some of my band friends emotionally distancing themselves from the band program after we failed to make finals. The process may have repeated multiple times over my high school years, with decreased band cohesion leading to worse performances, and failures at state competitions leading to the band further falling apart. Perhaps my band would not have drifted apart as much if we had done well at performances. The band may have bonded better after a successful performance, which could boost future performances as well. It is true, on some level, that teamwork makes the dream work. However, based on the research, I would also argue that when the dream works, the team works.
References
Grieve, F. G., Whelan, J. P., & Meyers, A. W. (2000). An Experimental Examination of the Cohesion-Performance Relationship in an Interactive Team Sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 12(2), 219-235. doi:10.1080/10413200008404224
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. Los Angeles: SAGE.
30
Sep 21
Gender Differences
Gender Differences
Gender differences have been a major issue in the society that we live in. People immediately give off stereotypes stating what a person can and cannot do. Gender differences can be seen whether they are stated verbally or non-verbal. Stereotypes lead to assumptions and norms about what activities, sports, and dress codes are considered masculine or feminine. Gender differences play a huge role since childhood and continue to expand as a person gets older. Biological and social factors affect the result of gender differences. A child’s gender influences the outcome of education, social life, and the judgment against them.
Gender differences is a way that we stereotype ourselves and keep ourselves in groups. There are different categories in which we separate for males and females. The activities, dress code, and sports are ways that we stereotype ourselves. For example, when we think of ice hockey, we think of males playing the game instead of females. While thinking about cheerleading, we think of majority females. Gender refers to “social or learned characteristics that are associated with being male or female” (Gruman 393). The way that we act in the social world is the way that we are being characterized. There are social norms that state things to be masculine and other things being feminine.
Even in early childhood, kids separate themselves based on being a male or female. Children separate themselves in activities, classrooms, and playgrounds. If you were to see a boy in a line of girls, then other kids would make fun of him for not being with them. When I was a child, I could relate to gender differences because I would only accept things that are pink and considered girly. I loved to have my hair done, nail polish, and dressing up as a princess. I used to also stay in areas around other girls and play with activities that are not as masculine. When playing a game or activity, do you normally pick others in the same gender or the opposite sex? Not only do our physical actions affect our gender differences, but also our verbal actions. The way that we express our feelings and emotions are different and might be expressed as being emotional for women. According to the textbook, “when a male child cries, people will often explain the behavior by saying that he is angry, whereas when a female child cies, they will often describe her as frightened” (Gruman 394). The way that we express our emotions as perceived differently in males and females. Men are considered to being angry and weak if they cry, while females are considered to be frightened and emotional.
Gender differences are the result of biological and social factors that influence a child’s response. Depending on the biological and social factors that a child grew up in, their responses might differ. If you were to tell a boy, what job do you want to work as you grow older, his answers might be like police officer, fireman, or athletics coach. They would consider jobs that are considered more masculine. On the other hand, if a girl is asked, she would say something like a teacher, model, doctor, or artist. Girls tend to choose careers that are feminine and less masculine. Not only do our choices affect the way that we choose things but also our biological and social factors. Some children might choose to be police officers because the social environment they live in might not be too safe.
In conclusion, the way that we are raised as children is the way that create gender differences and will be the same for future generation. In the society that we live in, gender differences have had a huge impact in our lives. Gender differences cause stereotypes in which we preserve ourselves and consider what and what not to do. Separating ourselves based on gender even developed since childhood and continues to expand as we grow. Gender differences expand to create stereotypes that create social norms since childhood. There are biological and social factors that influence gender differences. Does gender play a role in the way that you interact and communicate with others?
References:
Gruman, J. A., Schneider, F. W., & Coutts, L. M. (2017). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems. SAGE.
06
Feb 20
Poorly Constructed Buildings
The construction of safe and well-made homes is not just a social concern, but an environmental one as well. Building structures (such as improperly sealed air gaps, inefficient material choices, etc.) account for much of the inefficiency of buildings. This inefficiency is through the building’s use (primarily heat production) which accounts for much of its environmental impact (American Chemical Society, 2015). With this in mind, we discover that what was deconstructed in order to construct these buildings is less of a concern compared to how efficiently they run when in use.Using this knowledge we can shift our concerns to constructing more efficient buildings, and improve our techniques for doing so.
According to Ryan McNeill, the president of a solar energy company, the use of more efficient methods when constructing buildings begins with five steps: “sustainable site design..water quality and conservation..energy and environment..indoor environmental quality..materials and resources” (McNeill, n.d.). Using these tenets of construction we are able to address where current buildings potentially fail to provide an adequately efficient environment. Although the usage of already constructed buildings can be more efficient than constructing a new one, buildings that are already scheduled to be built can benefit from this kind of information. When faced with resource dilemmas related to household utilities, there can be difficulties on both sides of the issue, since citizens as well as legislators can be difficult to influence. For the purposes of influencing building construction, citizens may occasionally build new buildings, however the method of influencing legislation and regulations seems to be a more effective method of intervention as contractors often build many more houses than the average citizen.
The creation of legislation or regulations to be followed regarding the construction of new buildings and regular inspection of current buildings can have a large influence on the environmental efficiency of a community, as shown in small office and residential buildings in Switzerland. With these regulations in place, environmentalists’ largest concerns are often energy consumption. The use of water and other environmental resources also have an impact, however the use of various energy sources and efficiency levels are often the largest determinants of environmental impact (American Chemical Society, 2015). With a model society in mind, Switzerland in this instance, the creation of larger scale implementations are able to advance.By performing greater research on these issues in various countries we will be able to more accurately determine which pieces of legislature are most effective at solving different resource dilemmas regarding energy use.
Picture Sourced from Efficiency Vermont: https://www.efficiencyvermont.com/
Some notable influences on energy efficiency within homes can include rooftop structures, improved insulation, enhanced ventilation, building materials, motion sensing lights, building orientation, smart heating and cooling systems, and efficient lighting (National Geographic, 2017). The promotion of these factors within both current and in construction buildings can help decrease environmental impact. Aside from changing legislation, social promotion efforts can help influence current buildings to practice more energy efficient practices. Through our class readings, we discovered that influencing individuals to practice certain behaviors can result in negative practices. This was shown through a study in which individuals who were negatively judged for not recycling were then likely to recycle even less (Gruman et al, 2017). With this in mind, any interventions we seek to perform should be carefully evaluated for their effects.
Using the knowledge we have gained about the environmental impact of our homes, there are many paths to follow in regards to decreasing our environmental impact. Individually we can become more aware of our energy usage within our homes, possibly adopting some of the energy efficiency recommendations by National Geographic. On a larger scale, the promotion of energy efficient legislation as well as political leaders who will promote such causes can be one of our greatest tools for enacting change. By holding these individuals responsible, we can create communities that are built with quality in mind over frugality. Noticing it as a hotspot for energy usage, the adoption of more energy efficient building construction techniques could be one of the largest impacts we could have on climate change, and is an issue that should be attended to more often.
Resources
03
Feb 19
Life isn’t plastic, we need to get enthusiastic
Since its introduction in the 1950’s, it is “estimate[d] that 8300 million metric tons (Mt) of virgin plastics have been produced to date. As of 2015, approximately 6300 Mt of plastic waste had been generated, around 9% of which had been recycled, 12% was incinerated, and 79% was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment” (Geyer, Jambeck, & Law, 2017). These are staggering numbers to absorb, and it is apparent that this trend of plastic generation will have devastating environmental effects.
“The amount of plastic produced in a year is roughly the same as the entire weight of humanity” (Geyer et al., 2017).This translates to “91% of plastic waste isn’t being recycled. And since most plastics don’t biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years” (Geyer et al., 2017). According to research, “plastic takes more than 400 years to degrade, so most of it still exists in some form” (National Geographic, & Parker, 2018). Meaning, the plastic we make and “toss away” today will remain here long after our children’s children are gone. “Half of all plastic manufactured becomes trash in less than a year” (National Geographic et al., 2018).
“Worldwide, a trillion single-use plastic bags are used each year, nearly 2 million each minute” (Earth Policy Institute, & Larson, 2014). Nearly 100 billion plastic bags are used by Americans every year and tied together, they would reach around the Earth’s equator 1,330 times. In an effort to combat the accumulation of plastics, many cities and countries now either ban the sale of plastic bags in stores or charge a nominal fee for the use of the bags; a fee that is shared between the store and environmental cleanup corporations. While this is a step in the right direction, it still begs the question about what lasting effects plastic production will have on our environment currently as well as for the generations to come.
Plastics are effectively threatening our oceans and marine life. One prediction states “that by mid-century, the oceans will contain more plastic waste than fish, ton for ton, and this has become one of the most-quoted statistics and a rallying cry to do something about it” (National Geographic et al., 2018).
“Recycling in the U.S. has remained at nine percent since 2012. The United States ranks behind Europe (30 percent) and China (25 percent) in recycling, the study found” (National Geographic et al., 2018). Sadly, our environmental regulations are far behind many other parts of the world.
“The rapid acceleration of plastic manufacturing, which so far has doubled roughly every 15 years, has outpaced nearly every other man-made material. And, it is unlike virtually every other material. Half of all steel produced, for example, is used in construction, with a decades-long lifespan” (National Geographic et al., 2018). An intervention on plastics production is imminent, the question is whether the population at large decides to participate in the conversation before it becomes a very real crisis.
The time to fix these issues is now. “We as a society need to consider whether it’s worth trading off some convenience for a clean, healthy environment” (National Geographic et al., 2018). Taking action as a consumer is one tangible step in the right direction. Using reusable bottles or bringing reusable bags to the grocery store are individual choices that can make a big difference. Sharing information with others and helping influence the community around you can help alter the marketability of plastics which in turn will ensure change. If the choices of consumers show that plastic mass production is no longer profitable, companies are bound to follow suit and will have to find better, more sustainable options to get their products on the market.
Resources:
Geyer, R., Jambeck, J. R., & Law, K. L. (2017, July 01). Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from http://advances.sciencemag.org/content/3/7/e1700782
Earth Policy Institute, & Larson, J. (2014, October 16). Plastic Bags Fact Sheet. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from http://www.earth-policy.org/press_room/C68/plastic_bags_fact_sheet
National Geographic, & Parker, L. (2018, December 20). A whopping 91% of plastic isn’t recycled. Retrieved January 31, 2019, from https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/07/plastic-produced-recycling-waste-ocean-trash-debris-environment/
02
Feb 19
The Tragedy of the Commons
The tragedy of the commons is a resource dilemma concept introduced by a prominent 19th century economist named William Lloyd. In his allegory, he discussed the fact that in our world where resources are finite, people will consume these resources in a self-interested manner which will eventually lead to their depletion (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). We can look at history to see that, in certain situations, this theory holds true and we will see that economic principles may provide a potential remedy for this problem.
For a resource dilemma example, we will consider water rights to a certain creek in Montana. Rob Harmon gave a thought-provoking TEDxRainier Talk in 2010, entitled Blue is the New Green: Water Footprints, on the Prickly Pear Creek and how people with senior water usage rights used their allotments (even when they did not need the water) solely to maintain their rights. This consumption in a self-interested manner led to the complete drying up of the entire creek. We can also see tragedy of the commons when we consider the over-fishing of so many species in our oceans, the irresponsible and extravagant use of clean water sources, excessive deforestation, etc. This is a problem that economists and environmental psychologists are both are struggling to solve.
These examples are evidence that the choices of a few can affect the welfare of many. Economists view these types of problems as negative externalities. Negative externalities are the spill-over effects (usually seen as costs to a third party) that are not accounted for in the original transactions of production or consumption. These negative externalities are treated as market failures by environmental economists; too much of a good is being produced due to the fact that its full cost is not being accounted for (Callan & Thomas, 2013).
One solution for this type of market failure was proposed by Ronald Coase in 1960. In his paper “The Problem of Social Cost” he hypothesized that the assignment of property rights would bring the market back into equilibrium. According to Coase, it does not matter who is assigned the property rights, whether it’s the party we feel is harmed or the one doing the harming (1960). To briefly explain the Coase Theorem, we will use the problem of air pollution.
For this example, the citizens who live around an oil refinery will be assigned the property rights to the air in their town. If the citizens own the rights to a public good, such as clean air, then the refinery will have to pay them in order to pollute that air. Due to this extra cost, refined oil will become more expensive, and as a result the demand for it will decrease. This will in turn cause a reduction in the air pollution. This is how property rights can bring the market back into equilibrium.
In certain situations, I think that this concept could help environmental psychologists mitigate resource dilemmas such as the tragedy of commons and improve the manner in which people consume resources. Perhaps an intervention could be designed that would increase participants’ feelings of ownership of the environment. This intervention could utilize cognitive dissonance in the same manner that Dickerson, Thibodeau, Aronson, and Miller did in 1992 to encourage water conservation.
First, the intervention would establish the understanding that the Earth belongs to everyone which translates to the participants assuming individual ownership of the Earth. This relates to the Coase Theorem as it would be assigning conceptual property rights to the participants. The next step would be to ask participants how they take care of their most valuable possessions, especially those that cannot be replaced. Finally, feelings of hypocrisy would be induced when participants are made aware of the disparity between how they choose to treat their belongings in contrast with how they misuse our Earth and its finite natural resources. The intended result would be that participants choose to use natural resources in a more conscientious and sustainable way. Perhaps if we implemented an intervention in this manner, combining environmental economic and social psychological principles, the tragedy of the commons (market failure) would become a problem of the past.
References:
Callan, S. J., Thomas, J. M. (2013). Environmental economics & management: Theory, policy and applications (6th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Coase, R. H. (1960). The problem of social cost. The Journal of Law & Economics, 3, 1-44.
Dickerson, C.A., Thibodeau, R., Aronson, E., & Miller, D. (1992). Using cognitive dissonance to encourage water conservation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 841-854.
Harmon, R. (2010, December 10). Blue is the new green: Water footprints [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV3ZjORGwoI
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and addressing social and practical problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
04
Feb 18
Environmental effects on Human Behavior
It is widely known that the environment and settings surrounding a person can have great impacts on a person’s behavior. Factors including lighting, noise, and temperature are all variables of an environment. Relevant to this idea, I’ve often wondered why I could never focus or study at my house unless it is completely silent, the entire house is tidy and clean, candles are lit, and I’m wearing cozy clothes. Why am I like this I ask myself? Though this may sound so weird to some people, I’m sure there are others out there who are like this. People who cannot focus in their home (or anywhere else) unless it is their perfect environment. Everything needs to be very “Zen”, if I may say, in order for me to fully focus. In our text this week there was a very interesting yet also kind of odd example of how people’s environment can greatly affect their behaviors.
“The Built Environment” in chapter 13 of our text (Schneider, Gruman, Coults, 2012) the example provided is about an apartment complex that was built in Missouri in 1954. The apartment design was considered to have highly adequate vandal-resistant features and had a very open, simplistic and individual layout in which no space had been wasted. The apartment complex design was called the “Pruitt-Igoe” design and it permitted 12,000 residents to reside here. This new design had been created with the hopes of decreasing vandalism and crime, and also improving the deteriorating inner-city housing.
Something the project constructors of the new complex did to create a spacious feel was invest in elevators which only stopped on every third floor so most tenants had to walk up at least 1 to 2 floors in order to reach their apartment. The buildings were 11 stories high and this elevator design caused much more traffic in the stairwells. Something the project constructors clearly didn’t consider was that more people and traffic in stairwells can become a negative environment for people. Shortly after the opening of the apartment complex, problems began, all because the construction designs failed to understand the impacts of environment on human behavior. A very common problem in the building was known as “stairwell crime”. After only a mere 18 years the building had to be demolished because of how bad the environment had become once again.
Although the Pruitt-Igoe design example is a rather extreme example of environment on behavior, it does still send a message. The physical layouts and designs of buildings and spaces have many different variables within them that can have unimaginable impacts on how its residents behave. For me if I were living in that apartment in Missouri in the 1950’s, I’d be scared out of my mind to even open my door. That particular environment would have that effect on me.
Another funny example of environment I was just reminded of that happened in my life was the time I was staying at this really ritzy hotel in New York City. The one night I had been craving a tray of New York style pizza, I just needed to have it. I placed my order and waited for delivery. About 20 minutes later my room phone rings and the delivery guy is downstairs. I ask the front desk if they can send him up and tell me no he is not permitted to because the elevator uses your room key in order to function. I say oh ok no problem and I head down to the lobby. Mind you I’m having myself a relaxing night while in NYC, I’m wearing a hoodie and sweatpants, my hair is in a messy bun, and I have no make-up on, I’m really just lounging tonight. When I reached the lobby, I cannot even fully describe to you how bad I felt. It was about 7:30 pm and all of the hotels tenants were in the lobby dressed to the 9! Literally these people around me looked like they may have been millionaires. Women were in ball gowns, men were wearing tuxedos, and their children were dressed in their own best attire as well. It wasn’t one of those moment where I was just feeling self-conscious and thought everyone was looking at me. Every one really was looking at me. I had made eye contact with about 15 different people as I walked toward my pizza delivery guy. I felt as if I was truly putting a damper on everyone’s night. The strangers had looked at me as if their environments had just been negatively affected by my appearance and activity. In turn, this environment that I was presently in had a very negative impact on me as well! My cheeks became very flushed, my heart was going a million miles an hour, and I was so embarrassed. I gave the guy the money, and quickly took my pizza back up to the 7th floor where for the rest of the night I felt very sensitive about my image, and I inadvertently stress ate my entire tray of pizza. A person’s environment is key to their moods and behaviors. Also design flaws such as requiring hotel room cards in order to operate elevators can influence human moods and behaviors such as the example of when I had to retrieve my pizza and I became the laughing stock of a ritzy upscale hotel.
References
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., and Coutts, L. M. (Eds.) (2012). Applied Social Psychology: Understanding and Addressing Social and Practical Problems (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
11
Feb 17
Let’s have a heart-to-heart about stress.
How was your day today? Were you happy, angry, sad, stressed? Many of us would answer that we felt some stress. So, what made you feel stressed? Was it class work, money issues, health, family? Maybe it’s all the above. But what does that stress do to us? In this week’s lesson, in Psych 424, we discussed health related problems due to stress. In the lesson, health psychology is defined as the science of understanding psychological issues, as well as social influences on why we become ill, how we stay healthy, and how our bodies respond.
A questionnaire, called The Dental Environment Stress Questionnaire, was given to 205 dental students enrolled in a Bachelor of Dental Surgery program in Australia to quantify and identify the sources of stress in their lives (Sanders & Lushington, 1999). D come as no surprise to us students, their greatest stressor was their grades. But what does this stress do to our bodies?
Most of us have learned that acute stress doesn’t tend to have long-term effects on our bodies. Animals experience acute stress in the wild most every day, but because the stress leaves once there is no longer a threat, the stress doesn’t have long term effects on their bodies. Chronic stress, which is what we humans have come to know so well, is the type that stays with us. It is the worries of work, finances, family, and any other thing that adds to our daily stress that makes them chronic stressors. This chronic stress is what is effecting our health. Though doctors don’t know exactly how chronic stress affects the heart, those at Harvard Medical have a good idea. They believe that it is most likely due to stress triggering inflammation, which is known as an instigator of heart disease. In addition to the inflammation, stress that leads to unhealthy behaviors such as a bad diet and lack of exercise can also lead to heart disease. (Harvard Health, 2017)
You may be thinking, “But what can I do? I’m always going to have stress in my life.” Harvard Medical School has 5 suggestions that may help.
First, they suggest staying positive. Have a laugh! It’s been found to lower stress hormones, reduce that instigating inflammation, and it can help increase “good” cholesterol!
Next, try meditating. The focused, deep breathing has been known to reduce some risk factors associated with heart disease.
Then comes the exercise. Though it may seem like a pain at the beginning, exercise releases mood-boosting chemicals that can help lower blood pressure, strengthen your heart muscle, as well as keep you healthy and stress free.
Unplug. Leave those work calls and emails until tomorrow if possible.
Lastly, find other ways to de-stress. Is listening to music, getting a massage, or reading a book your idea of releasing some stress?
What you think contributes to stress the most? Would any of these help YOU?
References
Harvard Health: 5 ways to de-stress and help your heart, February 11, 2017, Harvard Health Publications. Retrieved from: http://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/5-ways-to-de-stress-and-help-your-heart
Sanders, A. E., & Lushington, K. (1999). Sources of stress for Australian dental students. Journal of dental education, 63(9), 688-697.
25
Sep 16
No more fresh water for you
For this week blog I will be discussing an article from nytimes.com titled, “In Sign of Warming, 1,600 Years of Ice in Andes melted in 25 years” by Justin Gillis. The article is about the world’s largest tropical ice sheet; the Quelccaya ice cap of Peru and the rate in which ice is melting, in addition to what is being revealed. Lonnie G Thompson, the Ohio State University glaciologist, along with her team has been studying the Quelccaya ice caps for more than 10 years.
Plants that were trapped under ice for thousands of years are now being exposed due to the rapid melting of the Quelccaya cap. These plants were dated by a radioactive form of carbon in plant tissue that decays at a known rate; giving scientist a new precise method of determining the history of the ice sheet’s margins. Several years ago, Dr. Thompson and her team found plants that were about 4700 years old. Now with an additional thousand feet of melting, Dr. Thompson and her team are now finding plants that are 6300 years old. If we subtract the age of the new plants from the age of the older found plants we see a difference of 1600 years.
Although finding plant species that were thought to be long gone is very exciting, the rate at which the caps are melting is very concerning. Mathias Vuille, a climate scientist at the State University at Albany in New York said, “the ice may not go quick because it is so much ice, but we may have already locked ourselves into a situation where we are committed to losing that ice”
After reading this article I cannot help but wonder what this means for the people of this region. According to the article 50% of the water supply to the people of Lima will be gone if the Quelccaya caps completely melt. I cannot help but wonder why don’t we have technology that would stop the ice from melting?
“In Sign of Warming, 1,600 Years of Ice in Andes melted in 25 years” by Justin Gillis. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/05/world/americas/1600-years-of-ice-in-perus-andes-melted-in-25-years-scientists-say.html
04
Apr 16
A Sense of Community
One of the interesting aspects of community and social psychology is the idea behind a sense of community. Our text describes a sense of community as the factors that determine whether people view their community in a positive or in a negative way (Schneider, Gruman, & Coutts, 2012). My husband and I have moved several times throughout our marriage and as a personal observation, I am much more adaptable to communities than my husband is. There have been several communities that I felt comfortable in, but he could not settle into. Part of his difficulties stem from being raised in a small town, while some of his other difficulties come from his PTSD.
According to McMillan and Chavis (1986), there are four elements that help someone to develop a sense of community. The first element is membership. Membership is easy to gain, as it is simply the idea that you can determine membership based on boundaries. However, my husband doesn’t feel membership in our current community. We lucked out and made friends with someone who happened to be preparing to rent out their home that was two blocks from my parents. This put us into a neighborhood that had people who general come from a higher income bracket. So although we live in this community, my husband struggles to feel membership because of the disparity of income between the majority of our neighbors and ourselves.
The second element is influence. This refers to how much the individual feels they have an impact on their community. There are ways to get involved in my community, but it is difficult. We have put our children into a charter school, so our children go to a different school than most of those in our neighborhood. We are not members of the Homeowner’s Association (though our landlord is), so we cannot recommend or have much impact on any change through that association. We have a very anal retentive Homeowner’s Association, and have already received notices for little things like leaving our trash bins out an extra night. This adds to us both feeling as though we have little control within our community, which makes this element very difficult to have.
The third element is the integration and fulfillment of needs. This relies on the members of a community being interdependent. Our community is full of large houses with attached garages. Most of our neighbors come and go through their garages. Because it is in the desert, there isn’t much as far as gardening, so we don’t see our neighbors outside. Most of the kids in our neighborhood are involved in extra-curricular activities, so we don’t even see them out playing. This makes integration difficult. There are events that the Homeowner’s Association has to help create opportunities to develop that sense of community, but unfortunately, those are few and far between. The only place where I have felt a sense of community is through social media. There is a Facebook group for my community that allows people to communicate about events, post business ads for local businesses, post about crimes, and for people to rant about things in the neighborhood. It is through this format that I have developed a small sense of integration. My husband doesn’t pay attention to these, and therefore has missed out.
The final element is a shared emotional connection. There is a cohesive bong between members of a community. As I described with the integration, it is difficult to build that bond with the limited interaction between community members.
I have found a community connection within my work place. There I have a membership, I feel as though I have an influence, we share values and integrate well with each other, and we often share emotional connections. My husband struggles with relationships. He struggles to find these communities. When we lived in California, we were in a very strong community. It was easy to feel member ship because everyone used the same grocery store and saw each other there. Everyone was able to make an impact in the community. I was able to make my impact by working at the local school. My husband made an impact in the ranching community by breeding ducks and rabbits. There was a lot of interdependence within our community. People shared “hand-me-downs” as well as home-grown fruits and vegetables. When a young girl was killed within our community, the community drew together and mourned, even those who did not know her. It was during that event that I saw how tight the community was, but we were part of it.
A sense of community is important. Research suggests that finding a place that develops that sense of community helps a person to develop their identity. The place that we live can affect our identity through effecting whether we feel unique in our living space, in control of our living space, if our living space makes us feel good about ourselves, and if where we live is consistent with our ideals of our own personality (Anton & Lawrence, 2014). These four principles of identity that our living space can effect are guiding principles of the identity process theory.
References
Anton, C., & Lawrence, C. (2014). Home is where the heart is: The effect of place of residence on place attachment and community participation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 40, 451-461. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.10.007
McMillan, D., & Chavis, D. (1986). Sense of commmunity: Definition and theory. Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 6-23.
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied Social Psychology (Second Edition ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE publications.
28
Feb 16
Prejudice and the internet
Prejudice is a very popular topic in the news and on the internet. The negative and hostile feelings toward people of the Muslim religion, the hatefulness people are expressing about police officers, the negativity towards the Syrian refugees, and even the frustration people express over the reactions and prejudices being expressed are prominent in social and broadcast media. People are using social media to either support their stereotypes and discrimination, or to attempt to disprove those who hold those prejudices. Unfortunately, those who are attempting to disprove are often doing so by showing articles, numbers, images, or videos that also have a bias, just an opposing one. It seems that most of the media “chooses sides” in either supporting the stereotypes and encouraging the negative behavior and feelings toward the groups or attempting to portray the group in only positives and vilify those who have those stereotypes. It has become a vicious cycle of blame and hatred.
I have recently become enthralled with the jigsaw classroom. The jigsaw classroom struck a chord for me because I am a teacher who works in a very diverse school. Our school has a policy of using cooperative learning structures. These structures create the jigsaw classroom environment. For more information on the jigsaw classroom, you can go to: https://www.jigsaw.org/. So, the next question would be as to whether or not something similar to the jigsaw classroom could be implemented using the internet. The difficult situation arises when attempting to use the internet to create mutual interdependence. Unfortunately, the internet allows a lot of independence and lack of accountability towards fellow members of various groups. The other situation arises when creating a common goal. There is often equal status online, so that would not be a difficult achievement, although some like to try and create a status like being a moderator or leader.
As the world continues to turn more toward technology, so have the educational systems. Although many people take online courses, they aren’t forced to interact much with others within the classes they take. By creating 2-3 jigsaw type assignments throughout the class, with the last possibly requiring the use of a Blackboard collaborative learning application in which they use video, this may help to create opportunities for people to overcome prejudices. It would have to be done for every class in order to create multiple opportunities to interact with people. In an effort to prevent stereotypes based on names, the group member would need to be assigned anonymous tags. The all interactions prior to the video conference should be geared to create communication, a common goal, equal status, and mutual interdependence. By preventing personal information to be shared and only the quality of work presented by each person, it will allow each person to develop opinions about each person based on their ability as a person and not a social, religious, or other group. By requiring this in all classes, this would create repeated exposure to prevent people from being considered to be “exceptions” to the rule.
13
Feb 16
The Possible Psychological and Health Benefits of a Ketogenic Diet
In taking a holistic approach to the human body, mind and environment all effecting each other, one must especially take into effect the influence that diet has not only on our body, but also on our minds. I wanted to research information that may be of use to me as I work towards becoming a clinical psychologist who specializes in working with children with developmental disabilities and disorders. So, in attempting to research the effects of diet on people with autism, I found some interesting articles regarding a ketogenic diet. A ketogenic diet consists of low amounts of carbohydrates and higher amounts of fatty proteins. By providing less carbohydrates for the body to convert to energy, the body begins to use the fats instead. Although this seems like a nice way to lose weight, it also has some beneficial effects for some psychological disorders.
In 1924, Dr. Russell Wilder of the Mayo Clinic recognized that this diet was very effective at treating symptoms of epilepsy. (The Charlie Foundation, 2014) The diet creates a higher amount of ketones and reduces the number of epileptic seizures. There are many benefits to this diet for people with epilepsy. There is also research being done to see if this diet has a positive effect on other disorders. The Charlie Foundation is a group that specializes in educating people and providing support for people who choose to control seizures with a ketogenic diet. You can find more information at: https://www.charliefoundation.org/explore-ketogenic-diet/explore-1/introducing-the-diet
In 2015, researchers attempted to find a beneficial link between a ketogenic diet and autism spectrum disorder. They were unable to find evidence that it is a treatment for the disorder, but research did indicate that it was a promising therapy option. (Castro, et al., 2015)
In people with a genetic predisposition to cancers, depression is often easy to feel. They feel helplessness due to an inevitability of being diagnosed someday with cancer. I understand the feeling because there is a family history of breast cancer on my mother’s side of the family. However, recent research indicates that a ketogenic diet may suppress or delay the emergence of cancer (Klement & Kämmerer, 2011). By providing hope and preventing the feeling of inevitability, it can decrease the feelings of depression.
This diet is only one of many different diets, each with its own merits and uses. Although research is still being conducted as to alternative benefits of this diet, it may be a diet worth considering in order to promote physical and psychological health.
References
Castro, K., Faccioli, L. S., Baronio, D., Gottfried, C., Perry, I. S., & dos, S. R. (2015). Effect of a ketogenic diet on autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 20, 31-38. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1016/j.rasd.2015.08.005
Klement, R. J., & Kämmerer, U. (2011). Is there a role for carbohydrate restriction in the treatment and prevention of cancer? Nutrition & Metabolism, 8, 75. doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/10.1186/1743-7075-8-75
The Charlie Foundation. (2014). Explore Ketogenic Diets: Introducing the Diet. Retrieved from The Charlie Foundation: https://www.charliefoundation.org/explore-ketogenic-diet/explore-1/introducing-the-diet