Jesse Marra and Rachel Myer
Professor Nichols
COMM 473
10 February 2020
Framing Theory
Abstract
This paper’s goal is to define the communications theory of framing and establish an understanding of its scope and application in public relations. By defining framing, its history and application in public relations along with providing examples, the theory should be understood by the reader.
Framing Theory
Getting an audience to make certain judgements regarding a piece of information may not be as hard as some people believe. Framing theory works to do just this. Framing theory suggests “that how something is presented to the audience (called “the frame”) influences the choices people make about how to process that information” (Davie). This is a critical conjecture that has influenced the way that ideas have been presented to the public since the beginning of time. Framing theory is used by communication professionals to help move the audience towards a certain belief. This may result in the audience to complete an action, or for the frame to shift the mental thought processes of the audience. Throughout this paper we will attempt to give a thorough description of the theory’s history, use a conceptual model to enhance understanding, and describe its application in Public Relations.
Although framing theory has been used in the field of communication since the start of human communication, Ervin Goffman proposed the theory in 1974. Goffman “put forth that people interpret what is going on around their world through their primary framework. This framework is regarded as primary as it is taken for granted by the user” (Davie). Goffman went on to say in his scholarly published article that natural and social frameworks play a role in someone’s life. Both social and natural frames help the individual to interpret data. This can be widely seen in today’s society. Thousands upon thousands of frameworks are in play in our society at the same time. This causes some individuals to believe certain ideas while others to believe the polar opposite. Goffman went on to clarify that “These frameworks and the frames that they create in our communication greatly influence how data is interpreted, processed, and communicated” (Davie). A prime example of framing theory is political news stations. Stations such as Fox and CNN have almost polar opposite frames when discussing certain events. Their goal is to organize information in a way that paints the picture that they want the audience to see. Both pictures may be about the same idea, but they will have two very different interpretations. Framing theory has been widely regarded as a close resemblance to agenda setting theory. Agenda setting theory says how “The news reports make it in a way that when a particular news report is given importance and attention than other news the audience will automatically perceive it as the most important news and information are given to them” (McCombs, Shaw). Agenda setting theory is the first step in framing theory. Both work to make the viewer see the topic in a specific light. But “Framing takes this a step further in the way in which the news is presented creates a frame for that information. This is usually a conscious choice by journalists – in this case a frame refers to the way media as gatekeepers organize and present the ideas, events, and topics they cover” (Davie). Framing theory, as mentioned earlier, has been around since the beginning of human communication. Every individual brings their own frames to a conversation. Although the theory is less than fifty years old, its effects have been prevalent since ancient times. In summary, framing theory is the focusing of attention on certain events, and then placing those events in a specific field of meaning.
Framing theory can be seen in several different mediums of communication throughout the world. One of the most prevalent areas framing theory is seen is in modern media. Working alongside agenda setting theory, news outlets work to frame certain stories in certain ways. As previously mentioned, one news outlet may frame a story one way while another may frame it in a completely opposite way. The goal of the news outlets is to effectively use framing theory to place events in a certain field of meaning. An example of this is the conceptual model shown here.
Shown above is a conceptual model of framing theory. The event that triggers the effect of framing theory is a change in foreign competition. A company is then left with two ways to frame the event. They can either choose to frame the event as perceived “sure gains” associated with the change in foreign competition, or they can frame the event as “sure losses” due to the change in foreign competition. Perceiving “sure gains” will result in an attitudinal framing of risk aversion. This will result in the strategic choice of the audience to decrease diversification. Perceiving “sure losses” will result in an attitudinal framing of risk seeking. This frame will result in the strategic choice of the audience to increase diversification. As seen from the conceptual model, framing theory can paint several pictures with one event.
Public relations practitioners use framing by highlighting and calling attention to special aspects of the causes, candidates, products, or services they represent. In Kirk Hallahan’s “Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations,” Hallahan defines framing in public relations as “If public relations is defined as the process of establishing and maintaining mutually beneficial relations between an organization and publics on whom it depends (Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1995), the establishment of common frames of reference about topics or issues of mutual concern is a necessary condition for effective relations to be established” (Hallahan, 207). This means that if the goal of public relations is to establish a relationship between an organization and the target audience, understanding this organization and target audience is absolutely imperative.
According to Hallahan, there are three forms of framing; valence framing, semantic framing, and story framing. Valence Framing is putting information in either a positive or negative light. When framing creates a positive valence it is associated with beliefs, values, traditions and rituals that people cherish. For example, framing a product as being environmentally friendly. Negative valence associations can also be useful, particularly when the message focuses on competitors. For example, political advertising can bring negative attention to specific, negative characteristics of an opposing candidate, with the goal of creating a negative association among voters. The next form of framing, Semantic Framing is the simple alternative phrasing of terms. semantic framing is used to focus on particular attributes that might be flattering or derogatory and, thus, be advantageous or disadvantageous to message sponsors in persuasive communications. The third form of framing in Public Relations is Story Framing which involves selecting key themes or ideas that are the focus of the message and incorporating a variety of storytelling or narrative techniques that support that theme (Hallahan.)
An example of using framing in Public Relations is Ivy Lee’s work for J. D. Rockefeller in the early 20th century. Lee did little to change Rockefeller’s business practices but worked to make other aspects of Rockefeller’s life known such as his interest in people, enthusiasm for golf, and philanthropic largess (Moyers, 1984). Cognitive scientist George Lakoff’s article “Understanding Trump” exposes another application of framing in Public Relations. Lakoff explains the ways in which Trump “uses your brain against you” and sent it to every member of the Clinton campaign during his 2016 presidential campaign. Trump was able to positively frame his campaign and negatively frame Clinton’s campaign to gain support from America (Rathje).
The framing theory is absolutely necessary when it comes to public relations. When used by Public Relations practitioners, framing can sway the audience towards a certain belief. In order for a successful campaign.With the goal of establishing a connection with a client , the message will be effective if it reflects the clients attitudes and behaviors. When creating a message, understanding how the people will perceive it is imperative.
Work cited
Davie, G. Framing Theory. Mass Communication Theory. Retrieved from https://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/framing-theory/
McCombs, M. Agenda Setting Theory. Communication Theory. Retrieved from https://www.communicationtheory.org/agenda-setting-theory/
Corporate strategic responses to foreign entry: Insights from prospect theory – Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Theoretical-framework_fig1_267863817
Hallahan, K. (1999). Seven Models of Framing: Implications for Public Relations. Journal Of Public Relations Research, 11 (3), 205-242.
Rathje, Steve. “The Power of Framing: It’s Not What You Say, It’s How You Say It.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 20 July 2017, www.theguardian.com/science/head-quarters/2017/jul/20/the-power-of-framing-its-not-what-you-say-its-how-you-say-it.